Page 1 Phys 661 - Baski

Review of Solid-State Physics

#1: Review of Solid State Physics
Types of Solids
Ionic, Covalent, and Metallic.
Classical Theory of Conduction
Current density j, drift velocity v
d
, resistivity .
Band Theory and Band Diagrams
Energy levels of separated atoms form energy band when
brought close together in a crystal.
Fermi Function for how to fill bands.
Metal, Insulator, and Semiconductor band diagrams.
Donor and Acceptor dopants (Hall Effect).
Devices
pn junction, diode
Page 2 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Types of Solids: Ionic Solid Properties
Formed by Coulombic attraction between ions.
Examples include group I alkali cations paired with group VII
halide anions, e.g. Na
+
Cl
-
.
Large cohesive energy (2-4 eV/ atom).
Leads to high melting and boiling points.
Low electrical conductivity.
No free electrons to carry current.
Transparent to visible light.
Photon energy too low to free electrons.
Soluble in polar liquids like water.
Dipole of water attracts ions.
Page 3 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Types of Solids: Ionic Solid Crystal Spacing
Potential Energy: U
tot
= U
attract
(+,) + U
repulse
(, )

Repulsive Potential 1/r
m

Attractive Coulombic
Potential -1/r
Total Potential
Page 4 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Simple Cubic Body-Centered Cubic
Face-Centered
Cubic
FCC
structure:
NaCl
Na
+

Cl
-
Types of Solids: Example Crystalline Structures
Page 5 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Types of Solids: Covalent Solid
Examples include group IV elements (C, Si) and III-V elements
(GaAs, InSb).
Formed by strong, localized bonds with stable, closed-shell structures.
Larger cohesive energies than for ionic solids (4-7 eV/atom).
Leads to higher melting and boiling points.
Low electrical conductivity.
Due to energy band gap that charged carriers must overcome in
order to conduct.
Page 6 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Types of Solids: Example Crystalline Structures
Diamond
Tetrahedral sp
3
bonding
(very hard!)
Graphite
Planar sp
2
bonding
(good lubricant)
Vertical t-bonds
Bond angle = 109.5
Page 7 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Types of Solids: Metal
Formed by Coulombic attraction between (+) lattice ions and
() electron gas.
Metallic bonds allows electrons to move freely through lattice.
Smaller cohesive energy (1-4 eV).
High electrical conductivity.
Absorbs visible light (non-transparent, shiny due to re-emission).
Good alloy formation (due to non-directional metallic bonds).
Page 8 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Current: (Amps)
dq
dt
i =
q t id =
}
i
R
V
=
R
L
A

=
Macroscopic Microscopic
2
Current Density: (A/m )
d
dA
J
i
=
d i A J =
}
where resistivity
conductivity
E
E J
o

o =
=
= =
where carrier density
drift velocity
d
d
n
v
n e J v =
=
=
2
where scattering time
m
ne
t
t
= =
Classical Theory of Conduction (E&M Review)
Drift velocity v
d
is net motion of electrons (0.1 to 10
-7
m/s).
Scattering time t is time between electron-lattice collisions.
Page 9 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Classical Theory of Conduction: Electron Motion
Electron travels at fast velocities for a time t and then collides with
the crystal lattice.
Results in a net motion opposite to the E field with drift velocity v
d
.
Scatter time t decreases with increasing temperature T, i.e. more
scattering at higher temperatures (leads to higher resistivity).
Page 10 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
2
1
( )
E
d
F
ma
E m
e e
J ne v ne a
ne
n t
t

t
= = = =
Metal: Resistance increases with Temperature.
Why? |Temp +t, n same (same # conduction electrons) |
Semiconductor: Resistance decreases with Temperature.
Why? |Temp +t, |n (free-up carriers to conduct) +
Classical Theory of Conduction: Resistivity vs. Temp.
Page 11 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Band Theory: Two Approaches
There are two approaches to finding the electron energies associated
with atoms in a periodic lattice.
Approach #1: Bound Electron Approach (single atom energies!)
Isolated atoms brought close together to form a solid.
Approach #2: Unbound or Free Electron Approach (E = p
2
/2m)
Free electrons modified by a periodic potential (i.e. lattice ions).
Both approaches result in grouped energy levels with allowed and
forbidden energy regions.
Energy bands overlap for metals.
Energy bands do not overlap (or have a gap) for semiconductors.
Page 12 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Solid of N atoms Two atoms Six atoms
Band Theory: Bound Electron Approach
For the total number N of atoms in a solid (10
23
cm
3
), N energy
levels split apart within a width AE.
Leads to a band of energies for each initial atomic energy level
(e.g. 1s energy band for 1s energy level).

Electrons must occupy
different energies due to
Pauli Exclusion principle.
Page 13 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Step function behavior smears out at higher temperatures.
( )
( )
1
1
F
FD
E
k
E
T
f E
e

=
+
Band Diagram: Fermi-Dirac Filling Function
Probability of electrons (fermions) to be found at various energy levels.
Temperature dependence of Fermi-Dirac function shown as follows:

At RT, E E
F
= 0.05 eV f(E) = 0.12
E E
F
= 7.5 eV f(E) = 10
129
Exponential dependence has HUGE effect!
Page 14 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
At T = 0, all levels in conduction band below the Fermi energy E
F
are
filled with electrons, while all levels above E
F
are empty.
Electrons are free to move into empty states of conduction band
with only a small electric field E, leading to high electrical
conductivity!
At T > 0, electrons have a probability to be thermally excited from
below the Fermi energy to above it.
Band Diagram: Metal
E
F

E
C,V
Conduction band
(Partially Filled)
T > 0

Fermi filling
function

Energy band
to be filled

E = 0
Page 15 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Band Diagram: Insulator
At T = 0, lower valence band is filled with electrons and upper
conduction band is empty, leading to zero conductivity.
Fermi energy E
F
is at midpoint of large energy gap (2-10 eV) between
conduction and valence bands.
At T > 0, electrons are usually NOT thermally excited from valence
to conduction band, leading to zero conductivity.
E
F

E
C
E
V
Conduction band
(Empty)
Valence band
(Filled)
E
gap
T > 0

Page 16 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Band Diagram: Semiconductor with No Doping
At T = 0, lower valence band is filled with electrons and upper
conduction band is empty, leading to zero conductivity.
Fermi energy E
F
is at midpoint of small energy gap (<1 eV) between
conduction and valence bands.
At T > 0, electrons thermally excited from valence to conduction
band, leading to measurable conductivity.
E
F

E
C
E
V
Conduction band
(Partially Filled)
Valence band
(Partially Empty)
T > 0

Page 17 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Band Diagram: Donor Dopant in Semiconductor
For group IV Si, add a group V element
to donate an electron and make n-type
Si (more negative electrons!).
Extra electron is weakly bound, with
donor energy level E
D
just below
conduction band E
C
.
Dopant electrons easily promoted to
conduction band, increasing electrical
conductivity by increasing carrier
density n.
Fermi level E
F
moves up towards E
C
.

Increase the conductivity of a semiconductor by adding a small amount
of another material called a dopant (instead of heating it!)
E
C
E
V
E
F
E
D
E
gap
~ 1 eV

n-type Si
Page 18 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Band Diagram: Acceptor Dopant in Semiconductor
For Si, add a group III element to
accept an electron and make p-type
Si (more positive holes).
Missing electron results in an extra
hole, with an acceptor energy level
E
A
just above the valence band E
V
.
Holes easily formed in valence
band, greatly increasing the
electrical conductivity.
Fermi level E
F
moves down towards E
V
.

E
A
E
C
E
V
E
F
p-type Si
Page 19 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Band Diagram: Other Variables
Metal Semiconductor
Work Function Electron Affinity _ Surface State
Bending
Page 20 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
pn Junction: Band Diagram
Due to diffusion, electrons
move from n to p-side and
holes from p to n-side.
Causes depletion zone at
junction where immobile
charged ion cores remain.
Results in a built-in electric
field (10
3
to 10
5
V/cm),
which opposes further
diffusion.
Note: E
F
levels are aligned
across pn junction under
equilibrium.
Depletion Zone
pn regions touch & free carriers move
electrons
pn regions in equilibrium
holes
E
V
E
F
E
C
E
F
E
V
E
F
E
C
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+












p-type
n-type
Page 21 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Current-Voltage Relationship


Forward Bias: current
exponentially increases.
Reverse Bias: low leakage
current equal to ~I
o
.
Ability of pn junction to pass
current in only one direction is
known as rectifying
behavior.

pn Junction: IV Characteristics
/
[ 1]
eV kT
o
I I e =
Reverse
Bias
Forward
Bias
Page 22 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Minority Carriers
pn Junction: Band Diagram under Bias
Forward Bias Reverse Bias Equilibrium
e
e
Forward Bias: negative voltage on n-side promotes diffusion of
electrons by decreasing built-in junction potential higher current.
Reverse Bias: positive voltage on n-side inhibits diffusion of electrons
by increasing built-in junction potential lower current.
e
Majority Carriers
p-type n-type
p-type n-type
p-type n-type
V
+V
Page 23 Phys 661 - Baski
Review of Solid-State Physics
Why Useful? Determines carrier type (electron vs. hole) and
carrier density n for a semiconductor.
How? Place semiconductor into external B field, push current along one
axis, and measure induced Hall voltage V
H
along perpendicular axis.


Derived from Lorentz equation F
E
(qE) = F
B
(qvB).

Carrier density n = (current I) (magnetic field B)
(carrier charge q) (thickness t)(Hall voltage V
H
)
Semiconductor: Dopant Density via Hall Effect
Hole Electron
+ charge charge
B
F qv B =