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Word roots to know for this chapter: an- = not co- = together
-valent = strength
electro- = electricity iso- = equal neutr- = neither pro- = before Covalent strength together a bond formed by sharing the electrons between the two atoms.
Element the simplest form of matter. A substance that cannot be broken down into another substance by chemical means.
Compound a substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio.
About 25 of the 92 naturally occurring elements are essential to life. Of these, carbon (C), oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N) make up about 96% of living matter.
Phosphorous (P), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), and a few other trace elements make up the remaining 4%.
Trace elements required only in minute quantities: Iron (Fe), Iodine (I)
Atom the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of the element Subatomic particles building block of an atom. Protons positively charged
Neutrons - neutral Electrons negatively charged
electron
neutron
proton
Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of the atom. The nucleus is therefore positively charged. Electrons remain outside the nucleus in a cloud. The cloud remains near the nucleus because of the attractions of opposite charge.
Atomic symbol used to represent both the element and one atom of that element
C
Carbon 12.011 12
Atomic mass the total mass of the atom sum of the mass of the protons and neutrons
Isotope forms of an element that contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons Carbon has 3 isotopes. Atomic # is the same.
13 6 C
14 6C
Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope the nucleus decays spontaneously , giving off particles and energy.
Tracers
Radioactive isotopes can be used as tracers to follow atoms through metabolism.
Here radioactive hydrogen-3 is used to label and trace the production of DNA molecules.
Positron-Emission Tomography
(PET Scan)
When radioactive tracers are used in conjunction with detection and imaging systems, they can be used to detect hot spots of chemical activity, here in cancer cells.
Energy Levels and Electrons Energy (E) - the capacity to cause change performing work. Potential Energy (PE) the energy matter posses because of location or structure.
The different states of PE that electrons have are called energy levels.
The electrons energy level correlates with the average distance from the nucleus and is represented by electron shells.
An electron can change the shell it occupies by either gaining or losing a specific amount of PE.
Lost energy is usually released to the environment as light and heat.
These atoms are arranged in periods according to the number of electron shells they possess.
Things to Remember Electrons tend to exist in the lowest available state of potential energy.
The chemical behavior of an atom depends mostly on the electrons found in the outermost shell.
The outermost electrons are called valence electrons and the outermost shell is called the valence shell. Atoms with the same number of valence electrons exhibit similar chemical properties.
Atoms with their outer most shell filled (total of 8 valence electrons) are inert or non-reactive.
These elements, plus Xenon (Xe), are called the noble or inert gases.
Electron Orbitals
The 3-dimensional space where an electron can be found 90% of the time is called an orbital. There are 4 types of orbitals, with different theoretical shapes s, p, d, f. Each orbital can hold only 2 electrons.
Dont Forget The first electron shell has only one orbital an s-orbital that can hold only 2 electrons.
The next electron shell has 4 orbitals, 1 s and 3 p orbitals that can hold a total of 8 electrons.
Orbitals are filled with electrons singly; only when all of the orbitals in a shell have one electron will they begin to pair. The reactivity of atoms arises from the presence of unpaired electrons in the orbitals of the valence shells.
When atoms react and form bonds, they are completing their valence shells, which means they contain 8 electrons.
The unpaired electrons are the ones involved in forming bonds.
The name is Bond Covalent Bond Covalent bonds result from the sharing or electrons between two atoms.
Two or more elements held together by covalent bonds are called molecules. One shared pair between two atoms is a single bond, two shared pairs are a double bond, and three shared pairs are a triple bond.
H-H is the structural formula and H2 is the molecular formula.
Not all bonds are created equal!!! Electronegativity the measure of the affinity of an atom for electrons. The more electronegative an atom, the higher the electron affinity. A bond where the electrons are shared equally is a nonpolar covalent bond H2 or H-H.
A bond where the electrons are not shared equally is a polar covalent bond H2O.
Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen so it keeps the valence electrons of the entire molecule closer to it. This gives the molecule an uneven charge distribution and makes it a polar molecule.
This water molecule has polar bonds and is a polar molecule. Are all molecules that have polar bonds polar?
No!!!
All of the bonds in this methane (CH4) molecule are also polar because carbon is more electronegative than hydrogen. However, because the uneven charges are evenly distributed around the center of the molecule methane is a non-polar molecule. Another example of a non-polar molecule with polar bonds is carbon dioxide, structural formula: O=C=O.
Ionic Bonds When the electronegativity of one atom far exceeds that of another atom, the more electronegative atom will strip away the electron(s) and add them permanently to their valance shell.
When an ion is negative it is called an anion. Oppositely charge particles attract each other and an ionic bond is formed. Compounds formed by ionic bonds are called ionic compounds or salts. NaCl is sodium chloride, or table salt.
Ionic compounds are often found as crystalline structures, which are aggregates of cations and anions arranged in a threedimensional lattice. These structures are extremely strong when in their solid state but when mixed with a solvent, like water, the ionic attraction between the atoms greatly decreases and the salt will dissolve readily.
Other Molecular Attractions Most of the chemical bonds in living things are covalent ones. The sharing of electrons, either equally or not, gives covalent molecules the ability to form weak attractions between themselves. These weak attractions are critical to the formation of many of the molecules that we will be studying.
Hydrogen Bonds a crucial attraction in living chemistry. Hydrogen is less electronegative than all the other atoms with which it bonds.
Because of this, it frequently has a partial positive charge when in a covalent molecule.
The partial positive of the hydrogen attracts and holds partial negative charges from other polar molecules thus creating a hydrogen bond.
Van der Waals Interactions Even a molecule that is not polar can have regions of variable charge. These positive and negative zones move throughout the molecule but they exist with enough frequency and duration to create attractions between molecules.
Van der Waals forces are very weak and only happen when atoms and molecules are very close together. Attractions like these do not just have to happen between separate molecules, they can happen within molecules as well. Ex: proteins.
A very important concept that will become evident in many of our topics is that form defines function. This is especially true in biological molecules.
Molecular shapes determines how molecules recognize and respond to each other.
Only molecules with complimentary shapes can get close enough to each other to interact.
The making and breaking of chemical bonds, leading to a change in the composition of matter, are called chemical reactions.
An arrow indicates the direction that the reaction occurs. Raw materials are called reactants. End materials are called products. Coefficients show the number of molecules or atoms involved. Matter is conserved during a chemical reaction.
Most reactions are reversible the products of the forward reaction become the reactants of the reverse reaction. 3H2 + N2 2NH3
When the forward and reverse reactions are occurring at the same rate the system has reached dynamic equilibrium. The reactions does not cease to occur, rather the ratio of products to reactants remains constant.
1) Which four elements make up approximately 96% of living matter? A) carbon, sodium, chlorine, nitrogen B) carbon, sulfur, phosphorus, hydrogen C) oxygen, hydrogen, calcium, sodium D) carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen E) carbon, oxygen, sulfur, calcium 2) Each element is unique and different from other elements because of its A) atomic mass. B) atomic weight. C) atomic number. D) mass weight. E) mass number.
D
C A D
3) Nitrogen (N) is much more electronegative than hydrogen (H). Which of the following statements is correct about the atoms in ammonia (NH3)? A) Each hydrogen atom has a partial positive charge. B) The nitrogen atom has a strong positive charge. C) Each hydrogen atom has a slight negative charge. D) The nitrogen atom has a partial positive charge. E) There are covalent bonds between the hydrogen atoms. 4) A) B) C) D) E) What explains most specifically the attraction of water molecules to one another. nonpolar covalent bond polar covalent bond ionic bond hydrogen bond hydrophobic interaction
5) Which of the following best describes chemical equilibrium? A) Forward and reverse reactions continue with no effect on the concentrations of the reactants and products. B) Concentrations of the products are higher than the concentrations of the reactants. C) Forward and reverse reactions have stopped so that the concentration of the reactants equals the concentration of the products. D) Reactions stop only when all reactants have been converted to products. E) There are equal concentrations of reactants and products and the reactions have stopped.