Types and Applications of Materials

Classification of Engineering Materials

Metallic
Ferrous alloys Irons and steels, etc. Non-ferrous alloys Aluminum, copper, magnesium, etc.

Non-metallic
Ceramic Glasses, glass ceramics, graphite, diamond, etc. Polymeric Thermoplastic plastics, thermoset plastics, elastomers, etc.

Composite (combination of two or more types)

Metal Alloys
Ferrous

A mixture of two or more metals, one of the

metals being iron Magnetic Little resistance to corrosion Non-Ferrous No iron Not magnetic More resistant to corrosion than ferrous alloys

Common Metallic Materials

Iron/Steel

Aluminum
Copper Titanium Nickel

Ferrous Alloys
Mainly composed of iron Important as engineering construction

materials Their widespread use is accounted for by three factors: Iron-containing compounds are abundant Produced using economical techniques Extremely versatile Susceptible to corrosion

Some Ferrous Alloys

Name Properties
Tough, high tensile strength, ductile. Can be hardened and tempered. Corrosion resistant Very strong and very tough. The hardest of the carbon steels. Tough, malleable. Stronger and harder than mild steels.

Uses
Girders, plates, nuts and bolts, general purpose. Cutting tools for lathes. Kitchen draining boards. Pipes, cutlery, aircraft. Gears, shafts, engine parts. Chisels, hammers, drills, files, lathe tools. Metal ropes, wire, garden tools, springs.

Mild Steel
High Speed Steel

Stainless Steel
High Tensile Steel High Carbon Steel Medium Carbon Steel

Ferrous Alloys -> Steels

Iron-carbon alloys The mechanical properties are sensitive to carbon

content May be classified according to carbon concentration

Low-carbon

Medium-carbon
High-carbon

Subclasses also exist according to concentration of

other alloying elements

Plain carbon steels contain only residual concentration

of impurities other than carbon and a little manganese Alloy steels have more alloying elements in specic concentrations.

Ferrous Alloys -> Steels -> Low-carbon Steels

Make up the greatest quantities of produced steel

Generally contain less than 0.25 wt%

Relatively soft and weak, outstanding ductility and

toughness Machinable and weldable, lowest production cost of all steels Typical applications include auto body components, I-beams and sheets used in bridges and tin cans Typically yield strength: 275 MPa (40,000 psi), Tensile strength: between 415 and 550 MPa (60,000 and 80,000 psi),

Ferrous Alloys -> Steels -> Low-carbon Steels -> HSLA Steels
High-strength, low-alloy (HSLA)

Contain other alloying elements such as copper

and nickel in combined concentrations as high as 10 wt% Higher strength and corrosion resistance than plain low-carbon steels May be strengthened by heat treatment Tensile strengths in excess of 480 MPa (70,000 psi) Ductile, formable and machinable Used where structural strength is critical
Bridges, towers, support columns, pressure

Ferrous Alloys -> Steels -> Medium-Carbon Steels

Have carbon concentrations between 0.25 and

0.60 wt% Plain medium-carbon steels have low hardenabilities Can be successfully heat treated only in very thin sections Additions of chromium, nickel, and molybdenum improve the capacity of these alloys to be heat treated
These heat-treated alloys are stronger than the low-

carbon steels, but at a sacrice of ductility and toughness

Used in railway wheels and tracks, gears and

Ferrous Alloys -> Steels -> High-Carbon Steels

Have carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%

Are the hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile of

the carbon steels Wear-resistant and hold a sharp cutting edge Used in cutting tools and dies for forming and shaping materials, as well as in knives, razors, hacksaw blades, springs, and high-strength wire.

Ferrous Alloys -> Steels -> Stainless Steels

Highly resistant to corrosion

Predominant alloying element is chromium

Concentration of at least 11 wt% Cr required

Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by

nickel and molybdenum additions. Divided intro three classes

Martensitic Ferritic

Austenitic

Used in gas turbines, steam boilers, aircraft and

missiles

Ferrous Alloys -> Cast Irons

Generically contain carbon above 2.14 wt%
In practice, most cast irons contain between 3.0 and

4.5 wt% C and other alloying elements

Become completely liquid at temperatures

between approximately 1150 and 1300C (2100 and 2350 F)

Considerably lower than for steels

Easily melted and amenable to casting

The most common cast iron types are gray,

nodular, white, and malleable

Ferrous Alloys -> Cast Irons

Ferrous Alloys -> Cast Irons -> Gray Iron

The carbon and silicon contents of gray cast irons

vary between 2.5 and 4.0 wt% and 1.0 and 3.0 wt%, respectively. Graphite exists in the form of akes, giving a fractured gray surface, hence its name Weak and brittle in tension; strong, ductile in compression Effective in damping vibrational energy High resistance to wear Used in base structures and heavy equipment frequently exposed to vibration Least expensive of all metallic materials

Ferrous Alloys -> Cast Irons -> Ductile or Nodular Iron

Gray iron with a small amount of magnesium

and/or cerium added before casting Has a different microstructure and mechanical properties than gray iron Graphite forms in nodules instead of flakes, hence the name Castings are stronger and much more ductile than gray iron Tensile strength: between 380-480 Mpa (55,000 and 70,000 psi), and Ductility from 10 to 20 %EL Used in valves, pump bodies, gears and machine

Ferrous Alloys -> Cast Irons -> White Iron and Malleable Iron
White iron derives its name from the white

appearance of the fracture surface of low-silicon (<1.0 wt%) cast irons In these irons, most of the carbon exists as cementite instead of graphite Extremely hard but also very brittle Used in applications needing very hard and wearresistant surfaces without much ductility such as rollers in rolling mills Used as an intermediary in the production of another cast iron called malleable iron

Ferrous Alloys -> Cast Irons -> White Iron and Malleable Iron
Malleable iron is made by heating white iron

between 800-900C (1470 and 1650F) for a prolonged time in a neutral atmosphere Its microstructure is similar to nodular iron Relatively high strength and appreciable ductility and malleability Used in connecting rods, transmission gears, flanges, valve parts and pipe fittings

Non-ferrous Alloys
Are alloys that do not contain iron

Not magnetic, more resistant to corrosion than

ferrous alloys Preferred when the limitations of ferrous alloys (high density, low conductivity, susceptibility to corrosion) are undesirable Classied either according to the base metal or according to some specic characteristic. These groups include alloys containing copper, aluminum, magnesium and titanium, the refractory metals, the superalloys, the noble metals and the miscellaneous alloy

Non-ferrous Alloys
Alloys that are so brittle that forming/shaping by

appreciable deformation is not possible ordinarily are cast alloys Those that are amenable to mechanical deformation are termed wrought alloys Heat treatable designates an alloy whose mechanical strength is improved by precipitation hardening or a martensitic transformation, both of which involve specic heat-treating procedures

Some Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys

Name Aluminium Aluminium alloys Copper Brass Lead Properties
Soft, malleable, conductive , corrosion resistant. Malleable and ductile Tough, ductile, high electrical conductor, can work hard or cold Very corrosive, harder than copper, good conductor Heaviest common metal, soft, malleable, corrosion resistant Corrosion resistant, easily worked

Uses
Aircraft, boats, window frames, saucepans, pistons and cranks. Aircraft and vehicle parts. Wire, cables, pipes, cylinders, PCBs, roofs Castings, ornaments, valves, forgings. Protection against X-Ray machines. Paints, roof coverings. Steel galvanized iron roofing, tanks, buckets, rust-proof paints

Zinc

Non-ferrous Alloys -> Copper Alloys

Have been utilized in a variety of applications

since antiquity Unalloyed copper is soft and ductile and difficult to machine; also, it has an almost unlimited capacity to be cold worked
It is highly resistant to corrosion in diverse

environments including the ambient atmosphere

Most copper alloys cannot be hardened or

strengthened by heat-treating procedures

Cold working and/or solid-solution alloying must be

utilized

Non-ferrous Alloys -> Copper Alloys -> Brasses

The most common copper alloys with zinc as a

substitutional impurity and the predominant alloying element Some of the common brasses are yellow, naval, and cartridge brass, muntz metal, and gilding metal. Used in jewelry, cartridge casings, musical instruments, electronic packaging, and coins

Non-ferrous Alloys -> Copper Alloys -> Bronzes

Alloys of copper and several other elements,

including tin, aluminum, silicon, and nickel Somewhat stronger than brasses, yet still have a high degree of corrosion resistance Generally utilized when, in addition to corrosion resistance, good tensile properties are required The most common precipitation hardenable copper alloys are the beryllium coppers
Tensile strengths as high as 1400 Mpa (200,000

psi) May be cast, hot worked, or cold worked Used in springs, surgical and dental instruments

Non-ferrous Alloys -> Aluminum and its Alloys

Characterized by a relatively low density (2.7

g/cm3 as compared to 7.9 g/cm3 for steel) High electrical and thermal conductivities Resistanct to corrosion in some common environments The chief limitation of aluminum is its low melting temperature [660C (1220F)] Mechanical strength of aluminum may be enhanced by cold work and by alloying Principal alloying elements include copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese, and zinc

Non-ferrous Alloys -> Aluminum and its Alloys

Generally, aluminum alloys are classied as

either cast or wrought Composition for both types is designated by a four-digit number that indicates principal impurities and purity level
For cast alloys, a decimal point is located between

last two digits

After these digits is a hyphen and basic temper

designationa letter and possibly a one- to three-digit number which indicates the mechanical/heat treatment of the alloy Used in beverage cans, bus bodies and automotive parts

Non-ferrous Alloys -> Magnesium and its Alloys

Has the lowest density of all structural metals

(1.7 g/cm3) Used where light weight is important (e.g. aircraft) Moderately low melting temperature [651C (1204F)] Relatively unstable and especially susceptible to corrosion in marine environments. Corrosion resistance is good in normal atmosphere Fine magnesium powder ignites easily when heated in air Aluminum, zinc, manganese are major alloying

Non-ferrous Alloys -> Titanium and its Alloys

Relatively new engineering materials that

possess an extraordinary combination of properties Pure titanium has low density (4.5 g/cm3), high melting point [1668C], elastic modulus of 107 GPa (15.5 106 psi) Tensile strengths as high as 1400MPa (200,000 psi) attainable Highly ductile and easily forged and machined The major limitation of titanium is its chemical reactivity with other materials at elevated temperatures

Non-ferrous Alloys -> Refractory Metals

Refractory metals have extremely high melting

temperatures In this group are niobium, molybdenum, tungsten, tantalum MT between 2468C for niobium and 3410C, the highest melting temperature of any metal, for tungsten Interatomic bonding in these metals is extremely strong Large elastic moduli and high strengths and hardnesses Varied applications

Non-ferrous Alloys -> Superalloys

Have superlative combinations of properties

These materials are classied according to the

predominant metal in the alloy, which may be cobalt, nickel, or iron Other alloying elements include the refractory metals (Nb,Mo,W, Ta), chromium, and titanium Used in aircraft turbine components
Mechanical integrity under these conditions is

critical
Also used in nuclear reactors and petrochemical

equipment

Non-ferrous Alloys -> Noble Metals

The noble or precious metals are a group of eight

elements that have some physical characteristics in common Expensive, superior or notable (noble) in properties, i.e. characteristically soft, ductile, and oxidation resistant The noble metals are silver, gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, and osmium
First 3 are most common and are used extensively in

jewelry
Sterling silver has approximately 7.5 wt% Cu
Alloys of both silver and gold are employed as dental

restoration materials Some integrated circuit electrical contacts are of gold. Platinum used laboratory equipment, in

Non-ferrous Alloys -> Miscellaneous Nonferrous Materials

Nickel and its alloys are highly resistant to

corrosion in many environments

Monel, a nickel-based alloy containing

approximately 65 wt% Ni and 28 wt% Cu (the balance iron), has very high strength and is extremely corrosion resistant It is used in pumps and valves
Nickel is one of the principal alloying elements in

stainless steels, and one of the major constituents in the superalloys

Non-ferrous Alloys -> Miscellaneous Nonferrous Materials

Lead, tin, and their alloys nd some use as

engineering materials Mechanically soft and weak, low melting temps, resistant to many corrosion environments, have recrystallization temps below room temperature Lead-tin alloys are used in solders Lead and alloys are used in x-ray shields and storage batteries Tin is used in food containers (cans)

Non-ferrous Alloys -> Miscellaneous Nonferrous Materials

Unalloyed zinc also is a relatively soft metal

having a low melting temperature

It is reactive in a number of common environments

and, therefore, susceptible to corrosion

Galvanized steel is plain carbon steel with a thin

zinc layer
Zinc preferentially corrodes and protects the steel

Galvanized steel is used in sheet metal, fences,

screws Zinc alloys are used in padlocks, car parts and office supplies

Non-ferrous Alloys -> Miscellaneous Nonferrous Materials

Zirconium is relatively abundant in the earths

crust Zirconium and its alloys are ductile and are comparable to those of titanium alloys and the austenitic stainless steels The primary asset of these alloys is resistance to corrosion in many corrosive media, including superheated water. Zirconium is transparent to thermal neutrons Used in heat exchangers, reactor vessels, and piping systems Also used in incendiary ordnance and in sealing

Ceramics
Hard

Strong
Low conductivity Brittle Can be dense or lightweight depending on

method of formation More resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments

Classification of Ceramic Materials

Structural clay products

Whitewares
Refractories Glasses Abrasives Cements Advanced Ceramics
Structural Electrical Coatings Chemical

Ceramics -> Glasses

Are noncrystal-line silicates containing other

oxides, notably CaO, Na2O, K2O, and Al2O3 The two prime assets of these materials are their optical transparency and the relative ease with which they may be fabricated Used in containers, windows, lenses, and berglass

Ceramics -> Glasses -> Glassceramics

Made by devitrification from most inorganic

glasses Have a low coefcient of thermal expansion High mechanical strengths and thermal conductivities Some glass-ceramics are optically transparent; others opaque The most attractive attribute of this class of materials is the ease with which they may be fabricated
Conventional glass-forming techniques may be

used conveniently in the mass production of nearly pore-free ware

Glassceramics are manufactured commercially

Ceramics -> Clay Products

One of the most widely used ceramic raw

materials is clay.
Found naturally in great abundance, it is often used

as mined without any upgrading of quality

Another reason for its popularity lies in the ease

with which clay products may be formed

When mixed in the proper proportions, clay and

water form a plastic mass that is very amenable to shaping The formed piece is dried to remove some of the moisture, after which it is red at an elevated temperature to improve its mechanical strength
Two classifications: structural clay products and

Ceramics -> Clay Products

Structural clay products include building bricks,

tiles, and sewer pipesapplications in which structural integrity is important The whiteware ceramics become white after the high-temperature ring.
Included in this group are porcelain, pottery,

tableware, china, and plumbing xtures (sanitary ware).

Ceramics -> Refractories

Can withstand high temperatures without melting

or decomposing Remain unreactive and inert when exposed to severe environments and provide thermal insulation Used in furnace linings for metal rening, metallurgical heat treatment, and power generation For many commercial materials, the raw ingredients consist of both large (or grog) particles and ne particles

Ceramics -> Refractories

Porosity is one microstructural variable that

must be controlled to produce a suitable refractory brick Strength, load-bearing capacity, and resistance to attack by corrosive materials all increase with porosity reduction. At the same time, thermal insulation characteristics and resistance to thermal shock are diminished

Ceramics -> Abrasives

Used to wear, grind, or cut away other material

The prime requisite for this group of materials is

hardness or wear resistance

In addition, a high degree of toughness is essential

Refractoriness is also desirable due to high

temperatures Diamonds (natural and synthetic) are utilized as abrasives More common ceramic abrasives include silicon carbide, tungsten carbide, aluminum oxide and silica sand

Ceramics -> Abrasives

Abrasives can be bonded to grinding wheels,

coated or used as loose grains. In the rst case, the abrasive particles are bonded to a wheel by means of a glassy ceramic or an organic resin. Coated abrasives are coated on some type of paper or cloth material; sandpaper is probably the most familiar example. Grinding, lapping, and polishing wheels often employ loose abrasive grains that are delivered in some type of oil- or water-based vehicle. Diamonds, corundum, silicon carbide, and rouge

Ceramics -> Cements

When mixed with water, these materials form a

paste that subsequently sets and hardens. This trait is especially useful in that solid structures having just about any shape may be formed Some of these materials act as a bonding phase that chemically binds particulate aggregates into a single structure
The role of the cement is similar to the glassy

bonding phase when clay products and some refractory bricks are red
The process by which cement hardens is not one

of drying, but rather, of hydration

Ceramics -> Cements

Of this group of materials, portland cement is

consumed in the largest tonnages.

Produced by grinding mixing clay and lime-bearing

minerals in the proper proportionsthen heating the mixture to about 1400C (2550F) in a rotary kiln This process, sometimes called calcination, produces physical and chemical changes in the raw materials The result is then ground into a very ne powder to which is added a small amount of gypsum to retard the setting process
Portland cement is termed a hydraulic cement

because its hardness develops by chemical

Ceramics -> Diamond

Diamond is the hardest known material and has a

very low electrical conductivity due to its crystal nature and bonds Unusually high thermal conductivity Optically transparent in the visible and infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum High index of refraction Used as gem stones and to grind or cut softer materials The surfaces of drills, knives, and other tools have been coated with diamond lms to increase surface hardness

Ceramics -> Graphite

Has excellent lubricative properties

High strength ,good chemical stability at elevated

temperatures and in nonoxidizing atmospheres High thermal conductivity, low coefficient of thermal expansion High resistance to thermal shock, high adsorption of gases, and good machinability Commonly used as heating elements for electric furnaces, high temperature refractories and insulations, rocket nozzles, electrical contacts and electrodes in batteries

Polymers
The word polymer literally means "many

parts. Polymers contain many chemically bonded parts Two industrially important polymeric materials are plastics and elastomers (rubbers).
Less dense than metals or ceramics

Resist atmospheric and other forms of

corrosion Good compatibility with human tissue High resistance to conduction of electricity

Polymers
Are classified into the following types:
Plastics Elastomers (or rubbers) Fibers Coatings

Adhesives
Foams Flms

Polymers -> Plastics

Polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride,

polystyrene, and the uorocarbons, epoxies, phenolics, and polyesters may all be classied as plastics Have a wide variety of combinations of properties May be either thermoplastic or thermosetting; Some plastics are very rigid and brittle; others are exible, exhibiting both elastic and plastic deformations when stressed, with considerable deformation before fracture Utilized as coatings on nonstick cookware, in bearings and bushings, and for high-temperature

Polymers -> Elastomers

The properties of elastomers depend on the

degree of vulcanization and on whether any reinforcement is used