From Cells to Organ Systems

Cells combine to form tissues, and tissues combine to form organs

Tissues
Groups of closely associated cells that have a similar structure and perform a specific function

Types of Tissue

FOUR Types of Tissue

1. Epithelial = covering 2. Connective = support

3. Muscle = movement
4. Nervous = control

Epithelial Tissues

Layers of cells that cover internal or external surfaces of the body

(skin, lips, digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary lining, inner surfaces of blood vessels and heart, etc)

Glands - Secreting cells derived from epithelia

(pancreas, thyroid, pituitary gland, etc.)

Epithelial Tissues
Cellular Layer

Basement Membrane

General Features of Epithelial Tissues

Cellular Layer + Basement Membrane No Blood Supply Touching Each Other

Rapid Rate of Cell Reproduction

Epithelial Tissue Functions

Physical protection from
- injury - dehydration - biological agents

Control permeability: substances that enters or

leaves the body crosses an epithelium Provide sensation: touch sensors, etc Produce specialized secretions: respiratory tract Absorption of molecules: kidneys

Classes of Epithelial Tissue

Simple: just one Stratified:

layer or cell shape

multiple layers and cell shapes

Simple Epithelia
Type Squamous Cuboidal Columnar Pseudostratified Cell shape Squashed (flat) Cubed Columns Flat cells give rise to columns Appear stratified Example Lines blood vessels and lungs Lines the kidney tubules Lining of digestive tract In respiratory tubes to move mucous/particles out of lungs

Human Anatomy, Larry M. Frolich, Ph.D.

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelium-Human Stomach

Quiz!!
Can You Identify the type of Epithelium?
A B

Glandular Epithelia
Epithelial tissues that secretes a product - has glands Glands may be a single cell (digestive tract) or composed of many cells

Glandular Epithelia
Exocrine glands products secreted into ducts (eg. salivary and sweat glands) Endocrine glands products secreted into blood stream (eg. pituitary and thyroid glands)

and secrete a water-based substance

Glands: epithelial cells that make

Exocrine Glands
Secrete substance onto body surface or into body cavity Have ducts e.g., salivary, mammary, pancreas, liver, sweat

Endocrine Glands
Secrete product into blood stream Either stored in secretory cells Hormones travel to target organ to increase response No ducts e.g., pituitary, thyroid

Connective Tissue What is it?

Living cells within a non-living extracellular matrix

Connective Tissues
Tissues specialized for maintenance of integrity and support of organs Made from matrix proteins and cells in different composition and proportions Consistency varies from liquid, gel to solid Good nerve & blood supply except cartilage & tendons

Connective Tissue
Consists of two basic elements: Cells far apart Extra-cellular matrix (ECM)
Extracellular Matrix (between cells): 1. Protein Fibers 2. Ground substance

Functions
Support & binding tissues

together Permits free diffusion of nutrients & metabolites Store energy as fat Immunological protection

 It Binds, It Supports, It Strengthens, It Protects,

It Insulates,
It Compartimentalizes, It Transports, It is a major site for stored energy, It is involved in our immune system

Types of connective tissue

Connective tissue proper

Cartilage
Bone Blood

Connective tissue proper

Loose (Areolar) connective

tissue
Dense connective tissue

Adipose connective tissue

Loose connective tissue

Underlies epithelia in soft places such as GI tract and lungs Found around organs Few fibers, some cells, sparse ECM ECM supported by collagen and elastic fibers Cells mostly fibroblasts and migratory immune cells, adipocytes

Loose connective tissue

Dense connective tissue

Lots of strong fibers, predominantly collagen Few cells, mostly fibroblasts Dependent on composition can be as hard as a bone or elastic as in skin Collagen can be arranged precisely such as in tendon or cornea or scattered as in skin Dense connective tissue can also be elastic (collagen and elastic fibers) as in skin or large arteries

Dense connective tissue

ADIPOSE
(fat cells or adipocytes)
Largest cells in the connective tissue 2 types
White fat cells Brown fat cells

Bone
Connective tissue that provides mechanical support and protection Mostly calcified matrix with few cells Very important storage of calcium Mechanical strength derived both from composition and overall organization Spongy or compact

CARTILAGE
Network of fibers in rubbery ground substance Resilient and can endure more stress than loose or dense connective tissue Types of cartilage: 1. hyaline cartilage (ends of bones) 2. fibrous cartilage (joints) 3. elastic cartilage (ear lobes)

Cartilage Very resilient connective tissue Covers the articular surfaces of joints Supports large airways, nose, ears etc Primarily glycosoaminoglycans with few fibers and very few cells

B C

Which is not connective tissue?

CARTILAGE
Types of cartilage: 1. hyaline cartilage most common type - weakest with fine fibers & milk-glass appearance (ends of bones, nose, fetal bones) 2. elastic cartilage elastic & collagen fibers - flexible (ear lobes, epiglottis) 3. fibrous cartilage /fibrocartilage - strong collagenous fibers withstand great pressure & absorb shock, reduce friction ( knee joints, intervertebral disks)

So can you guess the type of cartilage?

hyaline cartilage

elastic cartilage

fibrocartilage

Functions of Cartilage
supports surrounding tissue, e.g.,

external ear, nose weight-bearing capability shock absorbing function, e.g., synovial joints sliding properties (decrease friction at joints)

Bone
Bones consists of few cells + calcified matrix Very important storage of calcium Connective tissue that provides mechanical support and protection Spongy or compact

Bone - spongy or compact

Compact
- osteocytes

(bone cells) in lacuna around Haversion canals - canals (with nerve fibres) supply blood to cells - offshoot canals canaliculi

Bone- Spongy or compact

Spongy exists on the ends of bone - not as dense as compact but stronger - bars & plates for reinforcement

BLOOD
Blood connective tissue- blood cells + liquid matrix Red blood cells (erythrocytes) White blood cells (leukocytes) - separated by plasma - also present in plasma are platelets (fragments of bone marrow cells) blood clotting

BLOOD
2 Types of blood cells
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

- contains the oxygen White blood cells (leukocytes) - fight infection

Muscle
Muscle: A tissue composed of fibers

capable of contracting to effect bodily movement

Muscle is the primary tissue in the
Heart (cardiac MT) Walls of hollow organs (Smooth MT)

Skeletal muscle - makes up nearly half the bodys

mass

Muscle Tissue
Cells of muscles - known as fibers
Plasma membrane is called a sarcolemma Cytoplasm is called sarcoplasm

Muscle contraction

Depends on two types of myofilaments (contractile proteins) - actin - myosin These two proteins interact & generate contractile force

Functions of Muscle Tissue

Movement

Skeletal muscle - attached to skeleton & moves body by moving the bones Smooth muscle squeezes fluids and other substances through hollow organs Maintenance of posture enables the body to remain sitting or standing Joint stabilization Heat generation - Muscle contractions produce heat Helps maintain normal body temperature

Types of muscles
Skeletal muscles: Attached to bones. Moves body by moving the bones. Smooth muscle: Surround organs, tubes, eg. stomach, urinary bladder, blood vessels. Contract propels content through organs (eg. expel urine). Cardiac muscles: Heart muscle makes your heart pump blood.
Muscle fibre Tendons

Muscle
Blood vessel Connective tissue

Some Muscles
1. Gastrocnemius

2. Sartorius
3. Deltoid 4. Sternocleidomastoid

5. Tibialis
6. Hamstring group 7. Rectus Abdominus

8. Triceps
9. Biceps 10. Extensor Group

DID YOU KNOW THAT

Muscle a Latin word for little mouse

There are about 650 muscles in the human body. Every person has a unique tongue print. Hiccups are spasm of the diaphragm.

Cells of Nervous Tissue

Found in the brain & spinal cord (CNS)
Neurons
The functional unit of the nervous system

Transmit electrical signals (action potentials) to

other neurons or effectors Neuroglial (Glial) cells Nonexcitable Support and protect neurons

Neurons
Cell Body. aka Soma or Perikaryon - Contains usual organelles plus other structures eg. Nissl bodies Dendrites: short, often highly branched. - Receptive regions of the neuron, conducts impulses Axons. Long cytoplasmic process capable of propagating a nerve impulse - Transmits impulse away from soma

Neurons

3 Structural categories 1. multipolar 2. bipolar 3. pseudounipolar

Neuroglial (Glial) cells

Neuroglia supporting cells in the CNS (Do not transmit nerve impulses)
Schwann cells or neurolemmocytes: Wrap around portion of only one axon many times - inner fatty layer form myelin sheath (insulation). - outer surface is the neurilemma (promotes growth in damaged cells)

Satellite cells: surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia, provide support and nutrients

NODES OF RANVIER gaps in these cells (pass on impulses)

Membranes
Cutaneous membranes Skin: epidermis and dermis Mucous membranes, or mucosa
Lines every hollow internal organs that opens to the outside of

the body- digestive, respiratory, reproductive, urinary tract.

Serous membranes, or serosa

Lines sealed internal subdivisions of the ventral body cavity

(not opened to the outside) Slippery membranes lining the pleural, pericardial and peritoneal cavities The fluid formed on the surfaces is called a transudate

Synovial membranes Line joints

(a) Cutaneous membrane (b) Mucous membrane

(c) Serous membrane

Membranes

Lines internal organs & cavities

If lines organs - visceral If lines cavity - parietal

Serous Membranes
Ventral Body Cavity

Pleural membrane lines thoracic cavity & lungs Peritoneal membrane lines abdominal cavity & enclosed organs Pericardial membrane lines the pericardial cavity & surrounds heart

Each serous membrane is divided into Parietal or Visceral

Pleural membrane 1. Parietal Pleura - Thorax 2. Visceral Pleura - Lungs Peritoneal membrane 1. Parietal Peritonium Abdominal cavity 2. Visceral Peritonium enclosed organs
BOTH RUN TOGETHER TO FORM DOUBLE MEMBRANE = MESSENTARY

Pericardial membrane 1. Parietal Pericardium Pericardial cavity 2. Visceral Pericardium - heart

Synovial Membrane
Composed thin outer layer of stratified

squamous & a thicker underneath layer of connective tissue Line cavities surrounding joints and tendon sheaths Secrete synovial fluidlubricant

 Support- framework that supports body and cradles its soft organs
Protection- for delicate organs, heart, lungs, brain Movement- bones act as levers for muscles

Mineral storage- calcium & phosphate

Blood cell formation- hematopoiesis

- Cartilage

Bone Joints Ligaments (bone to bone) Tendons (muscle to bone)

Cartilage
Hyaline

Elastic
Fibrocartilage

HYALINE CARTILAGE
- Articular cartilage covers ends of bones

and moveable joints

- Costal cartilage attach ribs to the sternum - Respiratory cartilage forms respiratory passages and larynx - Nasal cartilage forms external nose

Articular cartilage

Costal cartilage

Respiratory cartilage

Nasal cartilage

ELASTIC CARTILAGE
- Forms external ear
- Forms epiglottis

Elastic cartilage

FIBROCARTILAGE
Withstands heavy pressure & tensile forces - Intervertebral disks - Knees and elbows

Fibrocartilage

BONES
Skeleton Greek for dried up body
Composed of 206 bones

1. Axial skeleton 80 bones 2. Appendicular skeleton 126 bones

Long bones Short bones Sesamoid bones Flat bones Irregular bones

 Long Bones- metacarpals, metatarsals, phalanges, humerus, ulna, radius, tibia, fibula Short Bones- carpals, tarsals Flat Bones- rib, scapula, skull, sternum Irregular Bones- vertebrae, some facial bones Sesamoid- patella

Long bones
- Diaphysis

shaft

- Epiphysis ends of bone; contain red marrow - Medullary cavity contains yellow marrow

- Epiphyseal plate found between diaphysis and epiphysis; long bone growth

spongy bone Proximal compact bone Endosteum

epiphysis

diaphysis

epiphyseal line
yellow marrow

Sharpeys fibers Distal epiphysis

hyaline cartilage

periosteum

Short bones

Sesamoid bones
form within a tendon e.g. patella

Flat bones
Thin, flattened, and slightly curved Diploe spongy bone found between compact bone layers

Diploe

Irregular bones
complicated

shapes e.g. vertebrae, pelvis