15-1

Chapter 15
Consumer Behavior, Consumer Behavior,
Eighth Edition Eighth Edition
8CHFFMAN & KANUK
%he Consumer`s Decision-
Making Process
15-2
pinion
Leadership
The process by which
one person (the
opinion leader
inIormally inIluences
the consumption
actions or attitudes oI
others who may be
opinion seekers or
opinion recipients.
15-3
hat is pinion Leadership?
pinion
Leader
pinion
Receiver
pinion
Seeker
15-4
amples of pinion Leadership
During a coIIee break, a co-worker talks
about the movie he saw last night and
recommends seeing it.
A person shows a Iriend photographs oI his
recent Australian Outback vacation and the
Iriend suggests that using a polarizing Iilter
might produce better pictures.
15-5
Special Issues
Opinion leaders are Iour times more likely
to be asked about political issues, three
times more likely to be asked about
computers or investments, and twice as
likely to be asked about restaurants
InIormation seekers seek a 'strong-tie
source when they know little about a topic,
and 'weak-tie sources when they have
some knowledge
15-6
Chat Rooms and pinion Leadership
15-7
Reasons for the ffectiveness of
pinion Leadership
Credibility
Positive and Negative Product
InIormation
InIormation and Advice
Opinion Leadership Is Category-
SpeciIic
Opinion Leadership Is a Two-way
Street
15-8
'iral
Marketing
Buzz Marketing
WildIire Marketing
Avalanche Marketing
%hese terms describe any strategy that
encourages individuals to pass on a
marketing message to others;
%he marriage of email and word-of-mouth
communication
15-9
ahoo`s Buzz Inde
15-10
igure 15.1 actors Leading to
Negative ord-of-Mouth Behavior
Individual Factors
Product Involvement
Situational Factors
Attitudinal Factors
Negative
M
Likelihood
of
Repurchase
-

15-11
igure 15.2 ord-of-Mouth in Action
0 20 40 60 80
Restaurants
Computer
Consumer lectronics
%ravel
Automotive
inancial Services
of
respondents
that used
a referral
to make one
of these
purchases
over the
past year
15-12
Motivations Behind pinion
Leadership
The Needs oI Opinion Leaders
The Needs oI Opinion Receivers
Purchase Pals
Surrogate Buyers versus Opinion Leaders
15-13
%he Needs of pinion Leaders
SelI involvement
Social involvement
Product involvement
Message involvement
15-14
%he Needs of pinion Receivers
New-product or new usage inIormation
Reduction oI perceived risk
Reduction oI search time
Receiving the approval oI the opinion
leader
15-15
TabIe 15.3 A Comparison of Motivations
(Excerpts)
PININ LADRS PININ RCI'RS
SL-IMPR'MN%
M%I'A%INS
Reduce post-purchase uncertainty or
dissonance
Gain attention or status
Assert superiority and expertise
Feel like an adventurer
Reduce the risk oI making a purchase
commitment
Reduce search time
PRDUC%-IN'L'MN%
M%I'A%INS
Express satisIaction or dissatisIaction
with a product or service
Learn what products are new in the
marketplace
Learn how to use or consume a product
15-16
TabIe 15.4 Key Differences Between
Opinion Leaders and Surrogate Buyers
PININ LADR
1. InIormal relationship with end-users
2. InIormation exchange occurs in the context oI a casual interaction
3. Homophilous (to a certain extent to end-users
4. Does not get paid Ior advice
5. Usually socially more active than end-users
6. Accountability limited regarding the outcome oI advice
7. As accountability limited, rigor in search and screening oI alternatives
low
8. Likely to have used the product personally
9. More than one can be consulted beIore making a Iinal decision
10. Same person can be an opinion leader Ior a variety oI related product
categories
15-17
TabIe 15.4 Key Differences
SURRA% BUR
1. Formal relationship; occupation-related status
2. InIormation exchange in the Iorm oI Iormal instructions/advice
3. Heterophilus to end users (that is, is the source oI power
4. Usually hired, thereIore gets paid
5. Not necessarily socially more active than end-users
6. High level oI accountability
7. Search and screening oI alternatives more rigorous
8. May not have used the product Ior personal consumption
9. Second opinion taken on rare occasions
10. Usually specializes Ior a speciIic product/service category
15-18
Measurement of pinion
Leadership
SelI-Designating
Method
Sociometric Method
Key InIormant Method
Objective Method
15-19
TabIe 15.5 Measuring Opinion Leadership
SELF-DESIGNATING
METHOD
'Do you inIluence
other people in their
selection oI
products?
Each respondent is asked a
series oI questions to determine
the degree to which he or she
perceives himselI or herselI to
be an opinion leader.
PININ LADRSHIP PININ LADRSHIP
MASURMN% MASURMN%
M%HD M%HD
SAMPL SAMPL
QUS%INS ASKD QUS%INS ASKD
DSCRIP%IN M%HD DSCRIP%IN M%HD
SOCIOMETRIC
METHOD
Members oI a social system are
asked to identiIy to whom they
give advice and to whom they
go Ior advice.
'Whom do you
ask?'Who asks you
Ior inIo about that
product category?
15-20
TabIe 15.5 continued
PININ PININ
LADRSHIP LADRSHIP
MASURMN% MASURMN%
M%HD M%HD
SAMPL SAMPL
QUS%INS QUS%INS
ASKD ASKD
DSCRIP%IN M%HD DSCRIP%IN M%HD
KEY INFORMANT
METHOD
'Who are the most
inIluential people in
the group?
CareIully selected key inIormants in
a social system are asked to
designate opinion leaders.
ArtiIicially places individuals in a
position to act as opinion leaders
and measures results oI their eIIorts.
'Have you tried the
product?
OBJECTIVE
METHOD
15-21
TabIe 15.6 ProfiIe of Opinion Leaders
NRALIZD
A%%RIBU%S ACRSS
PRDUC% CA%RIS
CA%R-SPCIIC
A%%RIBU%S
Innovativeness
Willingness to talk
SelI-conIidence
Gregariousness
Cognitive diIIerentiation
Interest
Knowledge
Special-interest media exposure
Same age
Same social status
Social exposure outside group
15-22
Market Market
Maven Maven
Individuals whose
inIluence stems Irom a
general knowledge or
market expertise that
leads to an early
awareness oI new
products and services.
15-23
%he Interpersonal low of
Communication
Two-Step Flow
A communication model that portrays opinion
leaders as direct receivers oI inIormation Irom
mass media sources who, in turn, interpret and
transmit this inIormation.
Multistep Flow
A revision oI the traditional two-step theory
that shows multiple communication Ilows
15-24
igure 15.4 Two-Step Iow of
Communication Theory
Mass Media Mass Media
pinion
Leaders
pinion
Leaders
pinion
Receivers
(the masses)
pinion
Receivers
(the masses)
Step 1 Step 2
15-25
igure 15.5 MuItistep Iow of
Communication Theory
Mass Media Mass Media
Information
Receivers
Information
Receivers
pinion
Receivers/
Seekers
pinion
Receivers/
Seekers
pinion
Leaders
pinion
Leaders
Step 1a
Step 1b
Step 2
Step 3
15-26
Issues In pinion Leadership and
Marketing Strategy
Programs Designed to Stimulate Opinion
Leadership
Advertisements Stimulating Opinion
Leadership
Word oI Mouth May Be Uncontrollable
Creation oI Opinion Leaders
15-27
15-28
Diffusion Diffusion
Process Process
The process by which the
acceptance oI an
innovation is spread by
communication to
members oI social
system over a period oI
time.
15-29
Adoption Adoption
Process Process
The stages through
which an individual
consumer passes in
arriving at a decision to
try (or not to try, to
continue using (or
discontinue using a new
product.
15-30
lements of the Diffusion Process
The Innovation
The Channels oI Communication
The Social System
Time
15-31
Defining Innovations
Firm-oriented deIinitions
Product-oriented deIinitions
Market-oriented deIinitions
Consumer-oriented deIinitions
15-32
Product-riented Definitions
Continuous
Innovation
Dynamically
Continuous
Innovation
Discontinuous
Innovation
15-33
igure 15.6
Continuous
Innovation
15-34
igure 15.7 TeIephone Innovations
Telephone
Cell Phone
Fax Machine
Telephone answering machines
Call Iorwarding
Call waiting
Caller ID
Banking by telephone
Call-prompting systems
Hold button
Line-in-use indicator
Redial button
Auto dialing Ieature
Touch-tone service
800 Numbers
900 Numbers
Ability to send/receive email
Incorporate PDA Iunctions
Calendar/Phonebook
Voice-activated dialing
Switch Irom analog to
digital
Include camera
Ringer styles
Play games
Fax modem
Mobile Iax machines
Home oIIice systems
(combined Iax, copier,
computer printer
Plain paper Iax
Speed dial buttons
Delayed send
Copy Iunction
Paper cutter
Discontinuous
Innovations
Dynamically Continuous
Innovations
Continuous
Innovations
15-35
Product Characteristics %hat
Influence Diffusion
Relative Advantage
Compatibility
Complexity
Trialability
Observability
15-36
igure 15.8
Ad Stressing
ase of Use
and
Convenience
15-37
TabIe 15.7 Characteristics That
InfIuence Diffusion
CHARAC%RIS%ICS CHARAC%RIS%ICS AMPLS AMPLS
Relative
Advantage
Air travel over train travel, cordless
phones over corded telephones
Compatibility
Gillette MACH3 over disposable
razors, digital telephone answering
machines over machines using tape
Complexity
Electric shavers, instant puddings
15-38
TabIe 15.7 continued
CHARAC%RIS%ICS CHARAC%RIS%ICS AMPLS AMPLS
Trialability
Trial size jars and bottles oI new
products, Iree trials oI soItware,
Iree samples, cents-oII coupons
Observability
Clothing, such as a new Tommy
HilIiger jacket, a car, wristwatches,
eyeglasses
15-39
%ime and Diffusion
Purchase Time
Adopter Categories
Rate oI Adoption
See Table 15.8
Time Line Ior Selecting
a New
Automobile
15-40
Adopter Adopter
Categories Categories
A sequence oI
categories that
describes how early (or
late a consumer adopts
a new product in
relation to other
adopters.
15-41
igure 15.9 Adopter Categories
Innovators
2.5%
EarIy
Adopters
13.5%
Laggards
16%
Percentage of Adopters by Category Sequence
EarIy
Majority
34%
Late
Majority
34%
15-42
Innovators: Description
2.5 oI population
Venturesome
Very eager to try new ideas
Acceptable iI risk is daring
More cosmopolite social relationships
Communicates with other innovators
15-43
EarIy Adopters: Description
13.5 oI population
Respected
More integrated into the local social system
The persons to check with beIore adopting a
new idea
Category contains greatest number oI
opinion leaders
Are role models
15-44
EarIy Majority: Description
34 oI population
Deliberate
Adopt new ideas just prior to the average
time
Seldom hold leadership positions
Deliberate Ior some time beIore adopting
15-45
Late Majority: Description
34 oI population
Skeptical
Adopt new ideas just aIter the average
time
Adopting may be both an economic
necessity and a reaction to peer pressures
Innovations approached cautiously
15-46
Laggards: Description
16 oI population
Traditional
The last people to adopt an innovation
Most 'localite in outlook
Oriented to the past
Suspicious oI the new
15-47
TabIe 15.11 Stages in Adoption Process
NAM
S%A
HA% HAPPNS
DURIN %HIS S%A
AMPL
Awareness
Consumer is Iirst
exposed to the product
innovation.
Janet sees an ad Ior a new MP3 player in
the magazine she is reading.
Interest
Consumer is interested in
the product and searches
Ior additional
inIormation.
Janet reads about the MP3 player on the
manuIacturer`s Web site and then goes to
an electronics store near her apartment and
has a salesperson show her a unit.
Evaluation
Consumer decides
whether or not to believe
that this product or
service will satisIy the
need--a kind oI 'mental
trial.
AIter talking to a knowledgeable Iriend,
Janet decides that this MP3 player will
allow her to easily download the MP3 Iiles
that she has on her computer. She also
Ieels that the unit`s size is small enough to
easily Iit into her beltpack.
15-48
TabIe 15.11 Stages in Adoption Process
Trial
Consumer uses the
product on a limited
basis
Since an MP3 player cannot be 'tried like
a small tube oI toothpaste, Janet buys the
MP3 player online Irom Amazon.com,
which oIIers a 30-day Iull reIund policy.
Adoption
(Rejection
II trial is Iavorable,
consumer decides to use
the product on a Iull,
rather than a limited
basis--iI unIavorable, the
consumer decides to
reject it.
Janet Iinds that the MP3 player is easy to
use and that the sound quality is excellent.
She keeps the MP3 player.
NAM
S%A
HA% HAPPNS
DURIN %HIS S%A
AMPL
15-49
igure 15.11 An Enhanced Adoption
Process ModeI
Pre-eisting
problem or
Need
Awareness Interest valuation %rial
Adoption
or
Rejection
Postadoption or
Postpurchase
valuation
valuation
Adoption or Rejection
Discontinuation
Discontinuation or
Rejection
Rejection
15-50
igure 15.12 The ReIative Importance of
Different Types of Information Sources in the
Adoption Process
Importance
High
Low
A
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
s
A
d
o
p
t
i
o
n
%
r
i
a
l

v
a
l
u
a
t
i
o
n
I
n
t
e
r
e
s
t
Personal and
interpersonal
sources
Impersonal
mass-media
sources
15-51
Issues in Profiling Consumer
Innovators
DeIining the Consumer Innovator
Interest in the Product Category
The Innovator Is an Opinion Leader
Personality Traits
Media Habits
Social Characteristics
Demographic Characteristics
Are There Generalized Consumer Innovators?
15-52
igure 15.13
Ad Appeals
to ashion
Innovators