Classical and Fuzzy Logic Vtu

1
CLASSICAL LOGIC AND FUZZY LOGIC

Dr S.Natarajan
Professor
Department of Information Science and Engineering
PESIT, Bangalore
Classical Predicate Logic tautologies, Contradictions, Equivalence,
Exclusive Or Exclusive Nor, Logical Proofs, Deductive Inferences
Fuzzy Logic, Approximate Reasoning, Fuzzy Tautologies, Contradictions,
Equivalence and Logical Proofs, Other forms of the Implication Operation,
Other forms of the Composition Operation

2
Python logic
Tell me what you do with witches?
Burn
And what do you burn apart from witches?
More witches!
Shh!
Wood!
So, why do witches burn?
[pause]
B--... 'cause they're made of... wood?
Good! Heh heh.
Oh, yeah. Oh.
So, how do we tell whether she is made of wood? [].
Does wood sink in water?
No. No.
No, it floats! It floats!
Throw her into the pond!
The pond! Throw her into the pond!
What also floats in water?
Bread!
Apples!
Uh, very small rocks!
ARTHUR: A duck!
CROWD: Oooh.
BEDEVERE: Exactly. So, logically...
VILLAGER #1: If... she... weighs... the same as a duck,...
she's made of wood.
BEDEVERE:
And therefore?
VILLAGER #2: A witch!
VILLAGER #1: A witch!

10/14
3
4
Classical Logic

What is
LOGIC- Small part of Human body to reason
LOGIC- means to compel us to infer correct answers

What is
NOT LOGIC- Not responsible for our creativity or ability to
remember

LOGIC helps in organizing words to form words- not
context dependent
5
Fuzzy Logic

FUZZY LOGIC is a method to formalize human
capacity to Imprecise learning called Approximate
Reasoning

Such reasoning represents human ability to reason
approximately and judge under uncertainty

In Fuzzy Logic --- all truths are partial or approximate
Here, the reasoning has been termed as Interpolative
reasoning
September 5, 2006 Applied Discrete Mathematics
Week 1: Logic and Sets
6
Negation (NOT)
Unary Operator, Symbol:
P P
true false
false true
7
Conjunction (AND)
Binary Operator, Symbol: .
P Q P.Q
true true true
true false false
false true false
false false false
8
Disjunction (OR)
Binary Operator, Symbol: v
P Q PvQ
true true true
true false true
false true true
false false false
9
Exclusive Or (XOR)
Binary Operator, Symbol:
P Q PQ
true true false
true false true
false true true
false false false
10
Implication (if - then)
P Q PQ
true true true
true false false
false true true
false false true
11
Biconditional (if and only if)
P Q PQ
true true true
true false false
false true false
false false true
12
Statements and Operators
Statements and operators can be combined in any
way to form new statements.
P Q P Q (P)v(Q)
true true false false false
true false false true true
false true true false true
false false true true true
13
Statements and Operations
Statements and operators can be combined in any way
to form new statements.
P Q P.Q (P.Q) (P)v(Q)
true true true false false
true false false true true
false true false true true
false false false true true
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Equivalent Statements
P Q (P.Q) (P)v(Q) (P.Q)(P)v(Q)
true true false false true
true false true true true
false true true true true
false false true true true
The statements (P.Q) and (P)v(Q) are logically
equivalent, because (P.Q)(P)v(Q) is always true.
15
Conditional (Implication)
This one is probably the least intuitive. Its only
partly akin to the English usage of if,then or
implies.
DEF: p q is true if q is true, or if p is false. In
the final case (p is true while q is false) p q
is false.
Semantics: p implies q is true if one can
mathematically derive q from p.

16
Truth Tables
P Q
P P.Q PvQ PQ PQ
False False True False False True True
False True True False True True False
True False False False True False False
True True False True True True True
17
Tautologies and Contradictions
A tautology is a statement that is always true.

Examples:
Rv(R)
(P.Q)(P)v(Q)

If ST is a tautology, we write ST.
If ST is a tautology, we write ST. This symbol
is also used for logical equivalence.

18
Tautologies and Contradictions
A contradiction is a statement that is always
false.

Examples:
R.(R)
((P.Q)(P)v(Q))

The negation of any tautology is a contra-
diction, and the negation of any contradiction is
a tautology.
19
TAUTOLOGIES
Tautologies Compound Propositions which are
ALWAYS TRUE , irrespective of TRUTH
VALUES of INDIVIDUAL SIMPLE
PROPOSITIONS

APPLICATIONS- DEDUCTIVE REASONING,
THEOREM PROVING ,
DEDUCTIVE INFERENCING ETC.,
Example: A is a set of prime numbers given by (A
1
=
1 , A
2
= 2, A
3
= 3, A
4
= 5, A
5
= 7, A
6
= 11 ) on
the real line universe X, then the proposition A
i

is not divisible by 6 is A TAUTOLOGY

20
Proof by Contradiction
A method for proving p q.
Assume p, and prove that p (q . q)
(q . q) is a trivial contradiction, equal to F
Thus pF, which is only true if p=F

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Contradiction Proof Example
Definition: The real number r is rational if there
exist integers p and q 0, with no common factors
other than 1 (i.e., gcd(p,q)=1), such that r=p/q. A
real number that is not rational is called irrational.

Theorem: Prove that is irrational. 2
22
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Symbolic logic
Definition
Language represented by a small set of symbols
reflecting the fundamental structure of reasoning with
full precision.
Propositional logic
Predicate logic
premise
conclusion
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Forms of reasoning
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The structure of propositional logic
Simple proposition
A proposition that does not contain any other
proposition. (atomic proposition)
Affirmative proposition
A proposition that contains no negating words or
prefixes.
A dog has four legs and tomorrow is Sunday.
Proposition p Proposition q
Complex proposition
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Logic Operations
27
Negation
p = a dog has four legs
q = Elvis is mortal
Truth table
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Conjunction
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Disjunction
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Implication
antecedent consequent
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Equivalence
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Classical Logic & Fuzzy Logic
Classical predicate logic
T: ueU [0,1]
U: universe of all propositions.
All elements u e U are true for proposition P are called
the truth set of P: T(P).
Those elements u e U are false for P are called falsity
set of P: F(P).
T(Y) = 1 T() = 0

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Classical Logic &Fuzzy Logic
Logic connectives
Disjunction
Conjunction
Negation
Implication
Equivalence
If xeA, T(P) =1 otherwise T(P) = 0
Or
x
A
(x)={ 1 if x eA, otherwise it is 0 }

If T(p).T(u)=0 implies P true, u false, or u true P false.
P and u are mutually exclusive propositions.

34
Given a proposition P: xeA, P: xeA, we have the
following logical connectives:
Disjunction
PvQ: x eA or x eB
hence, T(PvQ) = max(T(P),T(Q))
Conjunction
P.Q: xeA and xeB
hence T(P .Q)= min(T(P),T(Q))
Negation
If T(P) =1, then T(P) = 0 then T(P) =1
Implication
(P Q): xeA or xeB
Hence , T(P Q)= T(P Q)

35
Equivalence
1, for T(P) = T(Q)
(P Q): T(PQ)=
0, for T(P) = T(Q)
The logical connective implication, i.e.,P Q (P implies
Q) presented here is also known as the classical
implication.
P is referred to as hypothesis or antecedent
Q is referred to as conclusion or consequent.

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T(PQ)=(T(P).T(Q'))'
Or PQ= (A'vB is true)
T(PQ) = T(P'vQ is true) = max (T(P'),T(Q))
(A|B)'= (A.B')'= A'vB
So (A'vB)'= A|B
Or AB false A|B
Truth table for various compound propositions
P Q P PvQ P.Q PQ PQ
T(1) T(1) F(0) T(1) T(1) T(1) T(1)
T(1) F(0) F(0) T(1) F(0) F(0) F(0)
F(0) T(1) T(1) T(1) F(0) T(1) F(0)
F(0) F(0) T(1) F(0) F(0) T(1) T(1)
37
General format:
If x is A then y is B (where A & B are linguistic
values defined by fuzzy sets on universes of
discourse X & Y).

x is A is called the antecedent or premise
y is B is called the consequence or
conclusion
Examples:
If pressure is high, then volume is small.
If the road is slippery, then driving is dangerous.
If a tomato is red, then it is ripe.
If the speed is high, then apply the brake a little.
Fuzzy if-then rules
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Meaning of fuzzy if-then-rules (A B)

It is a relation between two variables x & y;
therefore it is a binary fuzzy relation R defined on
X * Y
There are two ways to interpret A B:
A coupled with B
A entails B
if A is coupled with B then:
Fuzzy if-then rules (cont.)
39
If A entails B then:

R = A B = A B ( material implication)

R = A B = A (A B) (propositional
calculus)

R = A B = ( A B) B
(extended propositional calculus)

Fuzzy if-then rules (3.3) (cont.)
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Two ways to interpret If x is A then y is B:
A coupled with B
B
A
y
x
Fuzzy if-then rules (cont.)
41
PQ: If x eA, Then y eB, or PQ AB
The shaded regions of the compound Venn diagram in
the following figure represent the truth domain of the
implication, If A, then B(PQ).
B Y
X

A
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IF A, THEN B, or IF A , THEN C
PREDICATE LOGIC
(PQ)v(PS)
Where P: xeA, AcX
Q: yeB, BcY
S: yeC, CcY
SET THEORETIC EQUIVALENT
(A X B)(A X C) = R = relation ON X Y

Truth domain for the
above compound
proposition.
43
Some common tautologies follow:
BB X
AX; A X X
AB (A.(AB))B (modeus ponens)
(B.(AB))A (modus tollens)
Proof:
(A.(AB)) B
(A.(AB)) B Implication
((A.A) (A.B))B Distributivity
(C(A.B))B Excluded middle laws
(A.B)B Identity
(AvB)B Implication
(AvB)B Demorgans law
Av(BB) Associativity
AX Excluded middle laws
X T(X) =1 Identity; QED
44
Classical Logic & Fuzzy Logic
Proof
(B.(AB))A
(B.(AB))A
((B.A)(B.B)) A
((B.A)C)A
(B.A)A
(B.A)A
(BvA)A
B(AA)
BX = X T(X) =1

A B AB (A.(AB) (A.(AB)B
O 0 1 0 1
O 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
Truth table
(modus ponens)
45
Contradictions
BB
AC; AC
Equivalence
PQ is true only when both P and Q are true or when both P
and q are false.
Example
Suppose we consider the universe positive integers X={1 sns8}.
Let P = n is an even number and let Q =(3sns7).(n=6). then
T(P)={2,4,6,8} and T(Q) ={3,4,5,7}. The equivalence PQ has
the truth set T(P Q)=(T(P)T(Q)) (T(P) (T(Q)) ={4} {1}
={1,4}
T(A)
T(B)
Venn diagram for equivalence
46
Exclusive or
Exclusive Nor
Exclusive or P v Q
(A.B') v (A'.B)
Exclusive Nor
(P v Q)'(PQ)
Logical proofs
Logic involves the use of inference in everyday life.
In natural language if we are given some hypothesis it is
often useful to make certain conclusions from them the
so called process of inference (P1.P2...Pn) Q is
true.
47
Hypothesis : Engineers are mathematicians. Logical
thinkers do not believe in magic. Mathematicians are
logical thinkers.
Conclusion : Engineers do not believe in magic.
Let us decompose this information into individual
propositions
P: a person is an engineer
Q: a person is a mathematician
R: a person is a logical thinker
S: a person believes in magic
The statements can now be expressed as algebraic
propositions as
((PQ).(RS).(QR))(PS)
It can be shown that the proposition is a tautology.
ALTERNATIVE: proof by contradiction.

48
Deductive inferences
The modus ponens deduction is used as a tool for
making inferences in rule based systems. This rule can
be translated into a relation between sets A and B.
R = (AB)(AY)
Now suppose a new antecedent say A is known, since A
implies B is defined on the cartesian space X Y, B can
be found through the following set theoretic formulation
B'= A'oR= A'o((AB)(AY))
o Denotes the composition operation. Modus ponens
deduction can also be used for compound rule.
49
Whether A is contained only in the complement of A
or whether A and A overlap to some extent as
described next:
IF A'cA, THEN y=B
IF A'cA THEN y =C
IF A'A =C, A'A=C, THEN y= BC
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54
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Truth values of complex propositions
58
Table of a complex proposition
59
Logic functions
60
Valid inference
61
Invalid inference
error
62
Basic Inference forms
63
Rules of Replacement
64
Predicate Logic
Singular Proposition
General Proposition
Subject term Predicate term
65
Singular Propositions
Lassie is a dog
Dl
Individual constant
l
Predicate variable
D
Fido is a dog Df
Buster is a dog Db
Ginger is a dog Dg
66
Generalization
Lassie is a dog
Dl
Individual constant
l
Predicate variable
D
Fido is a dog Df
Buster is a dog Db
Ginger is a dog Dg
Dx
x: Individual variable
Dx: propositional function
Df: substitution instances
Dx
Dl
instantiation
generalization
67
General Propositions
(x)Dx : There exists at least one x, such that the x is a dog

(x)( Dx Qx) : There exists at least one thing, such that it is
both a dog and a quadruped.

( x) Dx : For any x, x is a dog

( x) Dx Qx : for any x, if x is a dog, then x is a quadruped
Existential generalization
x : Existential quantifier
universal generalization x : universal quantifier
68
Relations represented by predicate logic
John loves Mary --- Ljm
Lrelation j,m individual constant

Everything is attracted by something --- ( x )(y)Ayx

x
y
69
Quantifier Negation
It is false that everything is square --- ( x )Sx
There is something which is not square --- ( x) Sx

Quantifier negation equivalences
70
The Square of Opposition
Spring 2003 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 71
Rules of Inference
Rules of inference provide the justification of
the steps used in a proof.

One important rule is called modus ponens or the
law of detachment. It is based on the tautology
(p . (p q)) q. We write it in the following
way:

p
p q
____
q
The two hypotheses p and p q are
written in a column, and the conclusion
below a bar, where means therefore.
Spring 2003 CMSC 203 - Discrete Structures 72
Rules of Inference
The general form of a rule of inference is:

p
1
p
2
.
.
.
p
n
____
q
The rule states that if p
1
and p
2
and
and p
n
are all true, then q is true as well.

Each rule is an established tautology of
p
1
. p
2
. . p
n
q

These rules of inference can be used in
any mathematical argument and do not
require any proof.
73
CS 173
Proofs - Modus Ponens
I am Mila.
If I am Mila, then I am a great swimmer.

I am a great swimmer!

p
p q
q
Tautology:
(p . (p q)) q
Inference
Rule:
Modus
Ponens
74
CS 173
Proofs - Modus Tollens
I am not a great skater.
If I am Erik, then I am a great skater.

I am not Erik!

q
p q
p
Tautology:
(q . (p q)) p
Inference
Rule:
Modus
Tollens
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
3.1-82
Rules of Inference
Many (implication) tautologies are rules of inference, and
have the form:
H
1
. H
2
. . H
n
C
where H
i
are the hypotheses, and C is the conclusion.
They can be represented by the symbolic form:
H
1

H
2
.
.
H
n

C
3.1-83
Fallacies
Fallacies are incorrect inferences.
Based on contingencies, NOT tautologies.
Some common fallacies are:
Affirming the conclusion (or the consequent)
Denying the hypothesis (the antecedent)
Begging the question (or circular reasoning)
3.1-84
The Fallacy of Affirming the
Conclusion
This invalid argument has the form:
p q
q
p
It is based on the implication:
[(p q) . q] p,
which is NOT a tautology.
3.1-85
Example
Is the following argument valid:
If you do every problem in the Rosen textbook, then you
will learn discrete mathematics.
You learned discrete mathematics.

Therefore, you did every problem in the textbook.
3.1-86
Example - Solution
No. Let p and q be the following propositions
p: You did every problem in the Rosen textbook,
q: You learned discrete mathematics.
The argument used is of the form:
p q
q
p
It is based on the implication:
[(p q) . q] p,
which is NOT a tautology.

87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
Fuzzy Logic
The restriction of classical propositional calculus to a two-
valued logic has created many interesting paradoxes over
the ages. For example, the barber of Seville is a classic
paradox (also termed as Russells barber). In the small
Spanish town of Seville, there is a rule that all and only
those men who do not shave themselves are shaved by a
barber. Who shaves the barber?
Another example comes from ancient Greece. Does the liar
from Crete lie when he claims, All Cretians are liars? If he
is telling the truth, then the statement is false. If the
statement is false, he is not telling the truth.
104
Fuzzy Logic
Let S: the barber shaves himself
S: he does not
S S and S S
T(S) = T(S) = 1 T(S)
T(S) = 1/2
But for binary logic T(S) = 1 or 0
Fuzzy propositions are assigned for fuzzy sets:
( ) ( )
1 0
~
~
~
s s
=
A
A
x P T

105
Fuzzy Logic
( ) ( )
~ ~
1 P T P T =
( )
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
v
v
~
~
~
~
~ ~
~
~
, max
:
Q T P T Q P T
B or A x Q P
( )
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
.
.
~
~
~
~
~ ~
~
~
, min
:
Q T P T Q P T
B and A x Q P
( )
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
v =
|
.
|
\
|

~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
, max Q T P T Q P T Q P T
Q P
Negation

Disjunction

Conjunction

Implication [Zadeh, 1973]
106
Fuzzy Logic
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) | | x y x y x
Y A B A R
A B A R
~ ~ ~ ~
1 , max ,
~ ~ ~ ~
. =
=
Example:
= medium uniqueness =

= medium market size =

Then
)
`
+ +
4
2 . 0
3
1
2
6 . 0
)
`
+ + +
5
3 . 0
4
8 . 0
3
1
2
4 . 0
~
A
~
B
107
Fuzzy Logic
108
Fuzzy Logic
When the logical conditional implication is of the
compound form,
IF x is , THEN y is , ELSE y is
Then fuzzy relation is:

whose membership function can be expressed as:
~
A
~
B
~
C
( ) ( )
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
C A B A R =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(
|
.
|
\
|
. . = y x y x y x
C A B A R
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
1 , max ,
109
Fuzzy Logic
Rule-based format to represent fuzzy information.
Rule 1: IF x is , THEN y is , where and represent
fuzzy propositions (sets)
Now suppose we introduce a new antecedent, say, and we
consider the following rule
Rule 2: IF x is , THEN y is
~
A
~
B
~
B
~
A
'
~
A '
~
B
R A B ' '
~ ~
=
110
Fuzzy Logic
111
Fuzzy Logic
Suppose we use A in fuzzy composition, can we get

The answer is: NO
Example:
For the problem in pg 127, let
A = A
B = A R
= A R
= {0.4/1 + 0.4/2 + 1/3 + 0.8/4 + 0.4/5 + 0.4/6} B
R B B
~ ~
=
112
Fuzzy Tautologies, Contradictions,
Equivalence, and Logical Proofs
The extension of truth operations for tautologies,
contradictions, equivalence, and logical proofs is no
different for fuzzy sets; the results, however, can differ
considerably from those in classical logic. If the truth
values for the simple propositions of a fuzzy logic
compound proposition are strictly true (1) or false (0), the
results follow identically those in classical logic. However,
the use of partially true (or partially false) simple
propositions in compound propositional statements results
in new ideas termed quasi tautologies, quasi
contradictions, and quasi equivalence. Moreover, the idea
of a logical proof is altered because now a proof can be
shown only to a matter of degree. Some examples of
these will be useful.
113
Truth table (approximate modus ponens)
A B AB (A.(AB)) (A.(AB))B
.3 .2 .7 .3 .7
.3 .8 .8 .3 .8 Quasi tautology
.7 .2 .3 .3 .7
.7 .8 .8 .7 .8
.4 .1 .6 .4 .6
.6 .1 .4 .4 .6
.6 .9 .9 .6 .9
114
The following form of the implication operator show
different techniques for obtaining the membership function
values of fuzzy relation defined on the Cartesian product
space X Y:
~
R
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
Fuzzy Logic
Rule-based format to represent fuzzy information.
Rule 1: IF x is , THEN y is , where and represent
fuzzy propositions (sets)
Now suppose we introduce a new antecedent, say, and we
consider the following rule
Rule 2: IF x is , THEN y is
~
A
~
B
~
B
~
A
'
~
A '
~
B
R A B ' '
~ ~
=
156
Fuzzy Logic
157
Fuzzy Logic
Suppose we use A in fuzzy composition, can we get

The answer is: NO
Example:
For the problem in pg 127, let
A = A
B = A R
= A R
= {0.4/1 + 0.4/2 + 1/3 + 0.8/4 + 0.4/5 + 0.4/6} B
R B B
~ ~
=
158
The extension of truth operations for tautologies,
contradictions, equivalence, and logical proofs is no
different for fuzzy sets; the results, however, can differ
considerably from those in classical logic. If the truth
values for the simple propositions of a fuzzy logic
compound proposition are strictly true (1) or false (0), the
results follow identically those in classical logic. However,
the use of partially true (or partially false) simple
propositions in compound propositional statements results
in new ideas termed quasi tautologies, quasi
contradictions, and quasi equivalence. Moreover, the idea
of a logical proof is altered because now a proof can be
shown only to a matter of degree. Some examples of
these will be useful.
159
.3 .2 .7 .3 .7
.7 .2 .3 .3 .7
.7 .8 .8 .7 .8
.4 .1 .6 .4 .6
.6 .1 .4 .4 .6
.6 .9 .9 .6 .9
160
The following form of the implication operator show
different techniques for obtaining the membership function
values of fuzzy relation defined on the Cartesian product
space X Y:
~
R
161
The following common methods are among those proposed
in the literature for the composition operation , where
is the input, or antecedent defined on the universe X, is
the output, or consequent defined on the universe Y, and
is a fuzzy relation characterizing the relationship between
specific inputs (x) and specific outputs (y):

Refer fig on next slide
~ ~ ~
R A B =
~
A
~
B
~
R
162
where f(.) is a logistic function (like a sigmoid or step function)
that limits the value of the function within the interval [0,1]
Commonly used in Artificial Neural Networks for mapping
between parallel layers of a multi-layer network.

Classical and Fuzzy Logic Vtu

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Classical and Fuzzy Logic Vtu

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CLASSICAL LOGIC AND FUZZY LOGIC

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