CHAPTER 18: ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How are electrical conductance and resistance characterized? What are the physical phenomena that distinguish conductors, semiconductors, and insulators? For metals, how is conductivity affected by imperfections, T, and deformation? For semiconductors, how is conductivity affected by impurities (doping) and T?

Chapter 18- 1

VIEW OF AN INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

Scanning electron microscope images of an IC:
Al
(d) (a)

Si (doped)

45 m
(b)

A dot map showing location of Si (a semiconductor):

--Si shows up as light regions.

0.5 mm

A dot map showing location of Al (a conductor):

--Al shows up as light regions.
(c)

Fig. (d) from Fig. 18.25, Callister 6e. (Fig. 18.25 is courtesy Nick Gonzales, National Semiconductor Corp., West Jordan, UT.)

Fig. (a), (b), (c) from Fig. 18.0, Callister 6e.

Chapter 18- 2

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION
Ohm's Law:
voltage drop (volts) current (amps)

DV = I R
resistance (Ohms)

Resistivity, r and Conductivity, s:

--geometry-independent forms of Ohm's Law
E: electric field intensity

DV I r L A
rL L A As

resistivity (Ohm-m) J: current density conductivity

Resistance: R

I s r
Chapter 18- 3

CONDUCTIVITY: COMPARISON
Room T values (Ohm-m)
-1

Selected values from Tables 18.1, 18.2, and 18.3, Callister 6e.

Chapter 18- 4

EX: CONDUCTIVITY PROBLEM

Question 18.2, p. 649, Callister 6e:

What is the minimum diameter (D) of the wire so that DV < 1.5V? 100m < 1.5V

L DV R 2.5A As I D2 7 6.07 x 10 (Ohm-m) 4

-1

Solve to get D > 1.88 mm

Chapter 18- 5

CONDUCTION & ELECTRON TRANSPORT

Metals:
-- Thermal energy puts many electrons into a higher energy state.

Energy States:
-- the cases below for metals show that nearby energy states are accessible by thermal fluctuations.

Chapter 18- 6

ENERGY STATES: INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

Insulators:
--Higher energy states not accessible due to gap.

Semiconductors:
--Higher energy states separated by a smaller gap.

Chapter 18- 7

METALS: RESISTIVITY VS T, IMPURITIES

Imperfections increase resistivity
--grain boundaries --dislocations --impurity atoms --vacancies
These act to scatter electrons so that they take a less direct path.

Resistivity
increases with:
--temperature --wt% impurity --%CW

r rthermal r thermal
Adapted from Fig. 18.8, Callister 6e. (Fig. 18.8 adapted from J.O. Linde, Ann. Physik 5, p. 219 (1932); and C.A. Wert and R.M. Thomson, Physics of Solids, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1970.)

rdef
Chapter 18- 8

EX: ESTIMATING CONDUCTIVITY

Question:
--Estimate the electrical conductivity of a Cu-Ni alloy that has a yield strength of 125MPa.

Adapted from Fig. 7.14(b), Callister 6e.

r 30x10

Ohm m

Adapted from Fig. 18.9, Callister 6e.

1 s 3.3x10 6 (Ohm m) 1 r
Chapter 18- 9

 Data for Pure Silicon:

--s increases with T --opposite to metals

PURE SEMICONDUCTORS: CONDUCTIVITY VS T

sundoped e
Egap / kT

electrons can cross gap at higher T

Adapted from Fig. 19.15, Callister 5e. (Fig. 19.15 adapted from G.L. Pearson and J. Bardeen, Phys. Rev. 75, p. 865, 1949.)

material Si Ge GaP CdS

band gap (eV) 1.11 0.67 2.25 2.40

Chapter 18- 10

Selected values from Table 18.2, Callister 6e.

CONDUCTION IN TERMS OF ELECTRON AND HOLE MIGRATION

Concept of electrons and holes:

Electrical Conductivity given by:

# holes/m 3

Adapted from Fig. 18.10, Callister 6e.

s ne e p e h
# electrons/m 3

hole mobility
Chapter 18- 11

electron mobility

INTRINSIC VS EXTRINSIC CONDUCTION

Intrinsic:
# electrons = # holes (n = p) --case for pure Si

Extrinsic:
--n p --occurs when impurities are added with a different # valence electrons than the host (e.g., Si atoms)

N-type Extrinsic: (n >> p)

Phosphorus atom 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+

P-type Extrinsic: (p >> n)

Boron atom

s n e e

4 + 5+ 4 + 4 + 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ no applied electric field

hole conduction electron valence electron Si atom

4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ 3+ 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ no applied electric field

Chapter 18- 12

s p e h

DOPED SEMICON: CONDUCTIVITY VS T

Data for Doped Silicon:
--s increases doping --reason: imperfection sites
lower the activation energy to produce mobile electrons.

Comparison: intrinsic vs
extrinsic conduction...
--extrinsic doping level:
1021/m3 of a n-type donor impurity (such as P). --for T < 100K: "freeze-out" thermal energy insufficient to excite electrons. --for 150K < T < 450K: "extrinsic" --for T >> 450K: "intrinsic"
Adapted from Fig. 18.16, Callister 6e. (Fig. 18.16 from S.M. Sze, Semiconductor Devices, Physics, and Technology, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., 1985.)

Adapted from Fig. 19.15, Callister 5e. (Fig. 19.15 adapted from G.L. Pearson and J. Bardeen, Phys. Rev. 75, p. 865, 1949.)

Chapter 18- 13

P-N RECTIFYING JUNCTION

Allows flow of electrons in one direction only (e.g., useful
to convert alternating current to direct current.

Processing: diffuse P into one side of a B-doped crystal. Results:

--No applied potential: no net current flow. --Forward bias: carrier flow through p-type and n-type regions; holes and electrons recombine at p-n junction; current flows. --Reverse bias: carrier flow away from p-n junction; carrier conc. greatly reduced at junction; little current flow.
Chapter 18- 14

SUMMARY
Electrical conductivity and resistivity are:
--material parameters. --geometry independent.

Electrical resistance is:

--a geometry and material dependent parameter.

Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators...

--different in whether there are accessible energy states for conductance electrons.

For metals, conductivity is increased by

--reducing deformation --reducing imperfections --decreasing temperature.

For pure semiconductors, conductivity is increased by

--increasing temperature --doping (e.g., adding B to Si (p-type) or P to Si (n-type).
Chapter 18- 15

ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 18- 0