Liquid Fuels

Petroleum
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat
Petroleum
Unconventional

sources
Colloidal Fuel Bituminous sands Natural gas liquid Oil shale Biofuel
Alcohols Vegetable Oils Gas reforming Liquefaction

Synthetic fuel derived from

From the Greek words

petra (rock) oleum (oil)
a. k. a.
Crude Crude Oil Oil
Flammable liquid found trapped by a non permeable layer of rock A mixture of
Hydrocarbons of different molecular weights Organic compounds Inorganic compounds/contaminants
Produced

by
Same geological process as natural gas. Hence, commonly found together with natural gas. Anaerobic decomposition or organic material and usually produced from organic sediments at

Depths of 1 6 km Temperature of 60 150oC to 150
Greater
depth translate to higher gas yield
General Requisite of petroleum formation

Porous rock to contain oil Impervious rock cover to prevent it from escaping Geological structure that permits wide area collection of oil in a restricted area Source material for petroleum formation
Theory of Formation
Biogenic

First proposed by Georg Agricola Widely accepted petroleum formation theory First proposed by Alexander von Humboldt Not acknowledged by most geologists due to limited scientific basis and inability in prediction for oil deposits
Abiogenic

Accumulation

of dead organic material in like
Gelatinous vegetal matter Animal Microscopic plant or bacterial organism like zooplankton, plankton or algae
in clays and sands at the bottom of sea or lakes
Oil
formation would require formation of organic matter-rich layer of mud or sediment. Favorable conditions are:
Stagnant sea or lake bottom Anoxic condition or very low oxygen level results in partial decay
Geological
movement/deposition of sediment, i.e. sand, stone and mud, on the seabed or lakebed compresses organic matter due to its weight. Increases in depth result in increase of pressure and temperature. Oil formation starts at temperature > 70oC. Initial formation of waxy material known as kerogen.
Kerogen

Mixture of organic material derived from geopolymers, i.e. degraded biomaterial Age or maturity is due to changes brought about by

Loss of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur Isomerization and aromatization
which are associated with increasing depth of burial having the corresponding color changes

Yellow Orange Brown Black

9
With the passage of time, sediment hardens into sedimentary rock. Oil window is temperature range at which oil forms (60-160oC).
Below minimum temperature, kerogen does not change to oil Within oil window, kerogen is converted to oil Above maximum temperature, oil is converted to natural gas by thermal cracking (> 160oC), i.e. gas window
High pressure and temperature (~ 100oC to 160oC) broke down (catagenesis, i.e. semidestructive distillation) long hydrocarbons to shorter chains by an endothermic reaction.
10
Oil
formed in the source rock migrates through pores of permeable rocks. Process takes millions of years for oil/gas to migrate a few kilometers.
(rock containing organic matter)
(rock containing organic matter)
11
Oil/gas
are trapped and accumulate in impermeable rock structure, i.e. caprock
12
Oil-retaining cap rock is penetrated by drilling and continued until bottom of the well, i.e. richest part of the oil-bearing rock, is located Natural pressures of reservoir will force the oil, gas and some water out to the surface As the oil is removed, water moves in to take the place of the oil Reservoir pressure is lowered by water displacement A point will be reach when the reservoir pressure is too low to force out the oil Gas or water is injected to the well to increase reservoir pressure
13
Base

Paraffinic Naphthenic or Asphaltic Mixed Paraffinic (1560%) Naphthenic (3060%) Aromatics (3-30%) Asphaltic (Remainder)
Composition
Sulfur
Content
Sweet Sour
14
Hydrocarbons
Paraffins (Alkanes)

Saturated hydrocarbons Stable compound Normal (straight chain) and iIso (branched) forms Unsaturated paraffinic hydrocarbons like alkenes, alkynes, dienes, trienes, etc Unstable and chemically reactive Form from cracking Smoky when burned Causes gum formation when oxidized Base material for polymerization
Olefins
15
Naphthenes
Saturated ring hydrocarbons, i.e. cycloparaffins Unsaturated stable ring hydrocarbons Has good antiknock quality Smoky when burned Good solvent
Aromatics

Traces of

Sulfur Nitrogen Oxygen Water Sediments

Impurities

16
Light
Ends
Gases (C1C5) [< 38 oC]

Refinery Offgases Natural Gas LPG Naphtha and Gasoline (C4C12) [38 149oC] Avgas Middle Distillates Jet Fuel and Kerosene (C10C20) [130 260oC] Gasoil/Diesel and Heating Oils (C14C30) [254 316oC]
Whites

17
Blacks

Light Fuel Oil (C28C50) Heavy Fuel Oil (C40C70) Residue and Asphalt
18
Fractional Distillation (Separation)

Atmospheric Vacuum
Cracking (Hydrocarbon Breakdown)

Thermal Catalytic
Polymerization (Chain Elongation) Absorption
Removal of heavier hydrocarbons from lighter compounds by contact process
Hydrogenation
Process similar to cracking but in the presence of hydrogen environment Unsaturated hydrocarbons becomes saturated
19
Fractional

Distillation (Separation)
Atmospheric Vacuum
Cracking

(Hydrocarbon Breakdown)
Thermal Catalytic
Polymerization
Reverse of cracking Creation of heavier compounds from lighter compounds through chain elongation
20
Absorption

Removal of heavier hydrocarbons from lighter compounds by contact process Vapors are removed by heating absorbing medium Process similar to cracking but in the presence of hydrogen environment Unsaturated hydrocarbons becomes saturated
Hydrogenation

21
Dehydrogenation

Hydrogen removal process Maximum octane number that can be produced is about 100 Production of isoparaffin by reacting olefin and paraffin Product is high octane fuel with high boiling point and low vapor pressure
Alkylation

Blending
of Finished Products
Mixing of various fractions to produce final product within desired specifications

22
Density
Density or Specific Gravity at

Air 15oC or 60oF a. k. a. API Gravity Created as API Gravity Scale in 1921 by American Petroleum Institute, which is an oil industry standard for density measurement Measure of how heavy or light a petroleum liquid is compared to water (10oAPI), i.e. < 10, heavier than water > 10, lighter than water
oAPI

23
Usually ranges between 10 and 70 Low specific gravity has high API gravity Obtained by Direct Measurement (Hydrometer Method)

Liquid is to poured into a tall cylinder Hydrometer is gently lowered into the liquid like graduated cylinder Hydrometer is allowed to float freely until stabilized Point at which the surface of the liquid touches the stem of the hydrometer is noted and reading made directly
24
Indirect Method (Density Measurement)
Density is measured using hydrometer or oscillating U tube Density adjustment made due to Temperature difference from standard of 60oF to account for sodalime glass expansion/contraction Meniscus correction for opaque oil Specific gravity is calculated 141.5 API gravity calculated using o API 131.5
SG (60 / 60 o F )
Temperature Correction High accuracy for oAPI range of 30 to 90 Formula

o o
API at 60o F
API ObservedTemp 500
560 Observed Temp ( F )

o
25
Reid
Vapor Pressure (RVP)
Absolute vapor pressure exerted by 100mL liquid exposed to air 4 times its volume in a bomb immersed at 100oF bath Applies to volatile crude oil and volatile nonviscous petroleum liquid except LPG Measure of fuel volatility that affects

Engine start up and warm up Easy acceleration Vapor lock tendency, i.e. combustion failure due to vaporization of fuel in fuel lines or delivery system
26
Sulfur
Forms SO2 and/or SO3 when burned that reacts with water vapor to form sulfurous acid or in some cases sulfuric acid Determined by analytical chemical tests
Corrosion

Test
Measures presence of sulfur and sulfur compounds by reacting sample with copper Test is done either done by copper-strip or copper-dish method Clean brightly polished copper surface changes to gray or black
27
Doctor
Test
Used to determine presence of sulfur compounds like hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans in light distillate based on color change Reaction Na2PbO2 + H2S PbS + 2 NaOH
Sodium Plumbite Black Color
Na2PbO2 + 2 RSH Pb(RS)2 + 2 NaOH

Lead Mercaptide (Brown Color)
28
Gum

Content
a. k. a. Existent Gum Measures presence of gum and gum forming potential due to presence of olefins or cracked material Process
50 mL sample is exposed at temperature of 320oF to evaporate volatile compounds Air is blown to promote low temperature oxidation of the fuel resulting to gum formation Result is reported as milligrams gum per 100 mL sample
29
Octane

Number
a. k. a. octane rating Measures tendency of fuel to
Knock or detonate when burned in a spark ignition engine Burned on a controlled manner
Knocking (or detonation) is the very rapid and uncontrollable burning of a fuel-air mixture in a cylinder which results in an abnormally rapid pressure rise and shock wave generates a sound. Intensity of knock is measured by a knockmeter, which indicates the rate of pressure rise during combustion.
30
Determined by comparing the performance of the fuel with the performance of a mixtures of isooctane and n-heptane with iso-octane arbitrarily set at 100 and n-heptane at 0. Does not relate to

Octane content of fuel Energy content of fuel
High performance engine require octane number of at least 93 Can be boosted by addition of

Organometallic additives like TEL Hydrocarbons like isooctane and toluene Oxygenates like MTBE, ETBE and EtOH
31
Measurement method
Research Octane Number (RON) Most common rating used around the world Determined by running the fuel in a test engine with variable compression ratio under controlled conditions, i.e. low to medium speed knock or at 600 rpm Motor Octane Number (MON) a. k. a. aviation lean octane rating Measure how fuel behaves under load, i.e. high speed knock Has no relation to RON but is around 8 to 10 points below RON
32
Determined by running the fuel in a test engine with

Preheated fuel mixture High engine speed, i.e. 900 rpm Variable ignition timing
AntiKnock Index (AKI) a. k. a. Pump Octane Number (PON) Average of RON and MON Around to 4 to 5 points below RON Observed Road Octane Number (RdON) Developed in the 1920s Determined by testing fuel over a stretch of level road using a multicylinder engine car at open throttle or a chassis dynamometer under conditions simulating highway driving
33
Neutralization Number
a. k. a. acid number Measures the amount of acidity present in fuel specifically naphthenic acid, which result to corrosiveness of fuel Parameter is measured in terms of mg KOH required to neutralize a gram of sample
Smoke Point
Measures tendency of a liquid fuel to form soot Higher smoke point result in lower soot forming tendency Experimentally determined by burning the fuel in a special wick lamp and slowly increasing the height of the flame until smoke begins to appear
34
Distillation Curve/Test
Used to determine volatility of fuel by measuring temperature at which a certain volume of liquid is evaporated Measurements taken are
Initial Boiling Point (IBP) Increments of 10% Fuel Evaporated Final Boiling Point (FBP)
ASTM Test Methods

D86 for petroleum products at atmospheric pressure D 1160 for petroleum products at reduced pressure
Freeze Point
Temperature at which fuel freezes, particularly critical for jet fuel

35
Cloud
Point
Temperature below which wax in diesel or biowax in biodiesel form a cloudy appearance due to crystal formation Tendency to plug filters and/or small orifices at cold operating temperature Presence of solidified waxes result in

Thickens fuel and clogs filters and injectors in engines Wax accumulation on cold surfaces (e.g. pipeline or heat exchanger fouling) and forms fuel- or oil-water emulsion
Wax crystals typically first form at the lower circumferential wall with the appearance of a whitish or milky cloud
36
Cold
Filter Plugging Point (CFPP)
Lowest temperature, expressed in 1C, at which a given amount of fuel still passes through a standardized filtration device at a specified time when cooled under certain conditions Gives estimate for the lowest temperature that a fuel will give trouble free flow in certain fuel systems, which is important as in cold temperate countries Fuel with high cold filter plugging point will clog up vehicle engines more easily Generally around 3oC lower than cloud point
37
Flash
Point
Lowest temperature at which a fuel will vaporize sufficiently to form a combustible mixture of fuel vapor and air above the fuel and requires ignition source At flash point, vapor will cease to burn when ignition source is removed Characterize the fire hazard of liquid fuel, i.e. both flammable and combustible liquids
Fire
Point
Temperature (higher than flash point) at which a fuel will have enough vapors that will rise to produce a continuous flame above the liquid
38
Autoignition

Temperature
a. k. a. kindling point Indication of the relative difficulty of combusting a fuel Lowest temperature required to initiate selfsustained combustion, i.e. spontaneous ignition, in atmospheric air in the absence of a spark or flame Temperature supply activation energy needed for combustion
39
Pour
Point
Indication of low temperature fluidity of the fuel, i.e. temperature at which
Liquid will flow or pour Crude oil be readily pumpable Formation of paraffin wax crystals Viscosity effect Thermal history
Restriction of flow is due to

Hence, it can be a misleading view of handling properties of crude oil.
40
Pour point range can be observed for sample to be between upper and lower pour points. Between the upper and lower pour points, fuel sample may appear liquid or solid because wax crystals form more readily when it has been heated within the past 24 hours and contributes to the lowering of pour point Measure resistance of fluid to flow Standard measured of viscosity is in terms of kinematic viscosity
Viscosity
41
Cetane
Number (for diesel)
Measure of ignition delay, i.e. time between start of injection and onset of combustion in compression-ignition engine Determined by comparing performance of a fuel with the performance of a mixtures of

n-cetane (hexadecane) iso-cetane (heptamethylnonane) 100 for n-cetane 15 for iso-cetane
with cetane number arbitrarily set

42
Ignition delay is measured in a standardized prechamber diesel engine at 900 rpm with
Water temperature of 100oC Inlet air temperature of 150oF Test is questionable at low cetane (CN < 35).
Formula
Cetane Number (CN) = % ncetane + 0.15 * % isocetane
Cetane number (CN) can be calculated from cetane index (CI)

CN = 5.28 + 0.371CI + 0.112 CI 2
43
Cetane index can be calculated from correlations based on parameters like
Aniline point (temperature at which aniline and the fuel are miscible) API gravity (G) Midboiling point temperature in oF (TM) using ASTM D86 Distillation test
ASTM D976 Method

CI = 420.34 + 0.016G 2 + 0.192 log TM + 65.01 log 2 TM 0.0001809 TM 2
44
Metal content
Presence in fuel can result to

Pollution Scale formation Catalyst poisoning/deactivation Vanadium Nickel Lead Sodium Calcium Iron Silicon Aluminum
Some metals being monitored are

45
Carbon

Residue
Weight percent of carbon deposit that will remain after evaporating the fuel Used as a gauge in comparing fuel with regard to

Clean burning property Tendency of oils to crack and form hard carbon deposits upon heating
Fore heavy fuel, 10 grams of a fuel is heated to a very high temperature in a covered crucible For light fuels with less than 5% carbon residues, the last 10% residuum from distillation test can be tested. For such case, the percentage is done with respect to the weight of 10% residuum
46
Carbon

Residue
Weight percent of carbon deposit that will remain after evaporating the fuel Used as a gauge in comparing fuel with regard to
Clean burning property Tendency of oils to crack and form hard carbon deposits upon heating in an inert atmosphere Ramsbottom Carbon Residue Conradson Carbon Residue Micro Carbon Residue
Can be expressed as
47
Fore heavy fuel, fuel is heated to a very high temperature and cooled afterwards. Percentage is based on weight difference. For light fuels with less than 5% carbon residues, the last 10% residuum from distillation test can be tested. For such case, the percentage is done with respect to the weight of 10% residuum
Solid matter that remains after complete combustion of the fuel Quantity is measured similar to Conradson Carbon Residue test except that temperatures are sufficiently high enough to ensure complete carbon combustion.
Ash

48
Asphaltene
content
Primarily composed of
Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Sulfur Trace amounts of Vanadium and Nickel
C:H ratio is approximately 1:1.2, depending on source Operationally defined as n-heptane-insoluble, toluene-soluble component carbonaceous material like crude oil, bitumen or coal
49
(Bottoms)

Sediments and Water
Conducted to determine the percentage of impurities in the fuel Liquid fuel is dissolved in benzol and centrifuged for 10 minutes at a speed of 1500 rpm
Heating

Value
Higher Lower
50
API
Gravity ASTM Distillation Sulfur Trace Metals Pour Point Salt Content Naphthenic acid or Neutralization number Water and Sediment
51
LPG
Specific gravity Hydrocarbon composition Corrosion, Cu strip Hydrogen sulfide
Gasoline

Specific gravity Aromatics and Benzene Content RON, MON, DON Corrosion, Cu strip Doctor Test RVP Distillation Recovery at 10%, 50% and 90%
52
Kerosene/Jet

Fuel
Specific gravity Freeze point Smoke point Distillation Corrosion, Cu strip Aromatics, % vol
Diesel

Sulfur content Flash point Pour point Cloud point Cold filter plugging point Distillation at 90% recovery Specific gravity Viscosity Cetane number/Diesel index
Industrial

Fuel Oil
Sulfur content Flash point Pour point Specific gravity Viscosity Bottoms, Sediment and Water Metals
Bitumen/Asphalt

Penetration Softening point Ductility Flash point
Emulsion
of powdered solid fuel and a liquid fuel/medium like coal in water or coal in kerosene Additive may be added to ensure emulsified state Fuel has high viscosity High velocity required to move solution
57
a.

k. a.
Oil sands Tar sands
Unconventional
petroleum deposit found in sand containing bitumen, clay, sand and water Formed by migration of oil to sand reservoir Costly due to energy intensive processes of bitumen extraction and upgrading Largest deposits are in

Athabasca Oil Sands (Alberta, Canada) Orinoco River (Venezuela)

58
Bitumen
Hydrogendeficient, i.e. unsaturated, oil which has a mix of hydrocarbon (primarily polycyclic aromatics) of chain length of up to 2,000 carbon atoms that makes it

Impossible to burn Extremely viscous and does not flow unless Heated Diluted Tarry
59
Hot Water Extraction

Commonly used process Recover oil to as high as 98% Process
Sand is mixed with hot caustic solution and agitated. Additional heating can be provided by steam. Bitumen floats to the top when small air bubbles attach to bitumen droplets during frothing Centrifugation separates oil, water and fine solids (~ 75% recovery) Oil recovery is further enhanced to > 90% by secondary process, i.e. Tailings oil recovery Naphtha recovery from froth Settling and Centrifugation
60
Cycling

Steam Stimulation (CSS)
a. k. a. huffandpuff method Used since 1950s in Californian oil fields Accidentally discovered by Shell while doing steam flooding in Venezuela when one of its steam injectors blew out Process is effective for the first few cycles Recovery range is around 20% to 25% Economic viability is dictated by cost of steam injection versus oil revenues
61
Process
Steam at 300340oC is injected into wells for weeks to months (Injection Stage) Sand is soaked for days to weeks (Soaking Stage) In the production stage, hot oil flows out by Natural flow due to increased reservoir pressure caused by steam injection Artificial lift or using pumps when reservoir pressure goes down Process is repeated when production rate falls
62
Steam

Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD)
Developed in the 1980s by Alberta Oil Sands Technology and Research Authority Cheaper than Cycling Steam Stimulation (CCS) Recovers up to 60% of the oil in situ Process
Two horizontal wells are drilled in the oil sand, i.e. At the bottom of formation Five meters above the bottom Steam is injected at the upper well, which melts the bitumen Bitumen is collected at the lower well and pump to the surface
63
Vapor

Extraction Process (VAPEX)
Similar to SAGD but hydrocarbon solvents are injected instead of steam Process

Has better energy efficiency than SAGD Partially upgrades bitumen to oil in situ Economic viability is dictated by cost of steam injection versus oil revenues
Steam at 300340oC is injected into wells for weeks to months Sand is soaked for days to weeks Hot oil is pumped out for weeks to months Process is repeated when production rate falls
Process
64
Derived from upgrading of bitumen and require approximately 1 to 1.25 GJ per barrel of bitumen 1st commercial production of synthetic crude in 1967 by Great Canadian Oil Sands Properties is dependent on upgrading processes used and typically has low sulfur and around 30oAPI Requires approximately 1 to 1.25 GJ energy Can be used to produce
Gasoline Aviation fuel Diesel Lubricating oils
65
Bitumen
conversion process
Removal of
Water Sand Physical waste if any Lighter products Hydrodemetallization Hydrodesulfurization Hydrodenitrogenation Coking (Removal of carbon) Hydrogenation (Addition of hydrogen) Hydrocracking
Catalytic purification by

Upgrading by

66
a. k. a.

Casing head gasoline Drip gas Natural gasoline Raw gas White gas
Consists of hydrocarbons of four to six carbons Used as
Cleaner Denaturing additive for fuel alcohol Lantern fuel Solvent Stove fuel
67
Typical

Composition of Casinghead type gasoline

36.7% Methane 14.5% Ethane 23.5% Propane 14.9% Butane 10.4% Illuminants (Pentane & Others)
68
Fractionation

Separation of component by boiling off one hydrocarbon at a time Flow Diagram

Ethane Deethanizer Propane Depropanizer nButane Butanes
Debutanizer
NGL Feed
Butane Splitter (Deisobutanizer)
C5 plus mixture
isoButane
69
Sweetening
Used to remove mercaptans by

Separation Conversion Desulfurization Molecular Sieve NGL is passed through a membrane to selectively remove mercaptans based on pore diameter
Process used
70
Mercaptan Oxidation (Merox) Process
Mercaptan is extracted by caustic solution containing Merox catalyst Mercaptan is oxidized to disulfide by catalyst with air Disulfide is decanted Caustic solution is recycled
71
Flow Diagram
Excess Air Decanter Air
Disulfide
Extracted Product
Contactor
Reactor
Feed
Rich Merox Caustic

Catalyst Injection
Merox-Caustic Solution
72
Pyrolysis
of coal Catalytic gas reforming (FischerTropsch Process) Hydrogenation of coal (Bergius Process)
Partial
combustion of coal at substoichiometric air yields carbon monoxide and hydrogen rich gas Gas is fed in a catalytic reactor to reform carbon monoxide and hydrogen to hydrocarbons (paraffins and olefins) and alcohols
Contains
kerogen Process requires lots of water Expensive process and there is difficulty in disposal Yields 7 to 50 gallons per ton Largest deposit in the Colorado Plateau
75
Shale
is mined, crushed and conveyed to recovery plant Shale is heated to break open the shale and recover the kerogen by passing heated air through the raw shale in a retort Crude shale oil is coke to produce hydrocarbon gases, distillates and heavy residues
76
Distillate

and hydrocarbon gases are hydrogenated and cracked to produce

Fuel or combustible gases Gasoline Kerosene Diesel fuels, heavy gas oil and fuel oils Lubricating oils Ammonium sulfate
77

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Petroleum

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Alcohols Vegetable Oils Gas reforming Liquefaction

Synthetic fuel derived from

From the Greek words

Crude Crude Oil Oil

Flammable liquid found trapped by a non permeable layer of rock A mixture of

Hydrocarbons of different molecular weights Organic compounds Inorganic compounds/contaminants

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Depths of 1 6 km Temperature of 60 150oC to 150

depth translate to higher gas yield

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

General Requisite of petroleum formation

of dead organic material in like

in clays and sands at the bottom of sea or lakes

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Loss of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur Isomerization and aromatization

Yellow Orange Brown Black

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

(rock containing organic matter)

(rock containing organic matter)

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

are trapped and accumulate in impermeable rock structure, i.e. caprock

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Sulfur Nitrogen Oxygen Water Sediments

Gases (C1C5) [< 38 oC]

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Fractional Distillation (Separation)

Cracking (Hydrocarbon Breakdown)

Polymerization (Chain Elongation) Absorption

Removal of heavier hydrocarbons from lighter compounds by contact process

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Mixing of various fractions to produce final product within desired specifications

Density or Specific Gravity at

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Indirect Method (Density Measurement)

Temperature Correction High accuracy for oAPI range of 30 to 90 Formula

API ObservedTemp 500

560 Observed Temp ( F )

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Vapor Pressure (RVP)

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Na2PbO2 + 2 RSH Pb(RS)2 + 2 NaOH

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

a. k. a. octane rating Measures tendency of fuel to

Octane content of fuel Energy content of fuel

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Determined by running the fuel in a test engine with

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

ASTM Test Methods

Temperature at which fuel freezes, particularly critical for jet fuel

Filter Plugging Point (CFPP)

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Indication of low temperature fluidity of the fuel, i.e. temperature at which

Restriction of flow is due to

Hence, it can be a misleading view of handling properties of crude oil.

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat