ELECTRICAL SYTSEM

T Senthil Kumar Fellow and Consultant

Electrical System
Topics for Discussion:

Electricity Billing Electrical Load Management Maximum demand Control Power Factor Improvement and its benefit Selection and location of capacitors Performance assessment of PF capacitors Distribution and transformer losses

Introduction to Electric Power Supply System

Power Generating Station Substation (Step UP) High Voltage Transmission Lines Substation (Step Down) Distribution Transmission Lines End Users

Agriculture 30%

Residential 18%

Industry 39%

Others 13%

Introduction to Electric Power Supply System

Power Generating Station : Fossil fuels like coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear energy, water are commonly used as energy sources in the power generating plant. Co-generation, solar energy, wind energy and waste materials also form a growing variety of unconventional generation source. 70% of power generation capacity in India is coal based thermal power plant with overall efficiency ranging from 28-35% depending upon size, operational practices & capacity utilisation.

Introduction to Electric Power Supply System

Power Generating Station : Where fuels are the source of generation, a common term used is the HEAT RATE which reflects the efficiency of generation. HEAT RATE is the heat input in kilo Calories or kilo Joules, for generating one kilo Watt-hour of electrical output. 1 kWh of electrical energy = 860 kilo Calories of thermal energy or 1 kWh of electrical energy = 3600 kilo Joules of thermal energy.

Introduction to Electric Power Supply System

Transmission and Distribution Lines : The power plants typically produce 50 Hertz (cycle/second), alternating-current (AC) electricity with voltages between 11kV and 33kV.

The 3-phase power is stepped up to a higher voltage for transmission on conductors strung on cross-country towers. High voltage (HV) and extra high voltage (EHV) transmission is usually carried out at 220 kV & 400 kV over long distances.
Where transmission is over 1000 kM, high voltage direct current transmission is also favoured to minimize the losses.

Introduction to Electric Power Supply System

Transmission and Distribution Lines : High voltage transmission is used so that: small & more economical wire sizes can be employed to carry the lower current and to reduce losses. Sub transmission network at 132 kV, 110 kV,66kV and 33 kV constitute the next link to the end user. Sub-stations, containing step-down transformers, reduce the voltage for distribution to industrial users.

Distribution at 11 kV/6.6kV/3.3kV constitutes the last link to the consumer.

Consumers are connected directly or thru transformers depending upon the drawl level of service.

Introduction to Electric Power Supply System

Transmission and Distribution Lines : Power loss in line is proportional to resistance and reactance of the line i.e.: PLoss = I2R High voltage transmission and distribution will help in minimizing line voltage drop in the ratios of voltages and the line power loss in the ratio of square of voltages. For instance: If the distribution power is raised from 11 kV to 66 kV, voltage drop would lower by a factor 1/6 & the line loss would lower by a factor of (1/6)2 = 1/36. Lower voltage transmission & distribution would also call for bigger size of conductor to handle higher current handling.

Introduction to Electric Power Supply System

Industrial end User: At the industrial premises elements like transformers, switchgears, lines and cables, capacitors and the loading equipments like motors form the plant network. Power generation reaching the industrial end user with typical 17% T&D losses the efficiency of generation and transmission would be 83% In a typical industrial distribution network transformer efficiency would be 95%;motor efficiency of 90%;mechanical system of efficiency of 70%.Thus the overall energy efficiency becomes 50%. (0.83 x 0.95x 0.90 x 0.70 = 0.50, i.e. 50% efficiency) Hence one unit saved in the end user is equivalent to two units generated in the power plant. (1Unit / 0.5Eff = 2 Units).

ELECTRICITY BILLING
The electricity billing by utilities for medium & large enterprises, in High Tension (HT) category, is often done on two-part tariff structure, i.e. one part for capacity (or demand) drawn
(Capacity or demand is in kVA (apparent power) or kW terms)

and the second part for actual energy drawn during the billing cycle or month. In addition to the above cost components, other components like Power factor penalty/bonus rates, fuel escalation charges, taxes, duties and surcharges, meter rentals, etc., are also included in the bill.

ELECTRICITY BILLING
Electricity bill indicates the following:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6.
7. 8. 9. 10.

Maximum demand recorded and charges Energy consumed and charges Power factor Reactive energy consumed Fuel escalation charges Electricity duty charges Penalty for exceeding contract demand Penalty for low power factor Incentive for good power factor Time of the day rates

ELECTRICITY BILLING
Analysis of Electricity bill data and monitoring its trend continuously helps energy mangers to identify ways for electricity bill reduction through available provisions in tariff framework, apart from energy budgeting. The maximum demand is recorded, is not the instantaneous demand drawn, but it is the time integrated demand over predefined recording cycle.

ELECTRICITY BILLING
As example, in an industry, if the drawl over a recording cycle of 30 minutes is : 3500 kVA for 4 minutes; 4600 kVA for 12 minutes; 3100 kVA for 6 minutes; 3800 kVA for 8 minutes; The MD recorder will be computing MD as:
(3500x4) +(4600 x 12) + (3100 x 6) + (3800 x 8) 30

= 3940 kVA

ELECTRICITY BILLING
The monthly MD will be the highest among the demand values recorded every half hour

over the month The industry has to pay for the highest MD registered even if it occurred for just one recording cycle duration.

Figure 1.4 Demand Curve

Demand Curve

Electrical Load Management

Why the Need for Electrical Load Management? The utilities (State Electricity Boards) use power tariff structure to influence end user in better load management through measures like time of use tariffs, penalties on exceeding allowed Max. demand, night tariff concessions etc. Load management is a powerful means of efficiency improvement both for end user as well as utility.

Demand Management
Demand management commonly refers to a set of measures taken to reduce the maximum demand of the system without affecting the plant output.
As the demand charges constitute a considerable portion of the electricity bill, from user angle too there is a need for integrated load management to effectively control the maximum demand.

Maximum Demand Control

Daily load curve
3000 2500 2000

KVA

1500 1000 500 0

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4 5 6

Hours

Maximum De mand (Daily Load Curve,Hourly kVA)

Maximum Demand Control

Make closer scrutiny of energy bills Identify variation in minimum & maximum of demand in various seasons. Analyse loads contributing to demand peak. Identify non-priority load. Determine when MD occurs (time/day) Define which loads could be Re-scheduled Reduced Turned off during peak load time

Methods of Maximum Demand Control

Manual type Load scheduling Demand monitoring activity Even alarm can be set-up Automatic demand controllers Large plant Load characteristics Energy Management system Acts as per demand + programmable Monitoring Capability

Power Factor Improvement

Power Factor Basics

To understand power factor, well first start with the definition of some basic terms:
KW is Working Power (also called Actual Power or Active Power or Real Power). It is the power that actually powers the equipment and performs useful work. KVAR is Reactive Power.It is the power that magnetic equipment (transformer, motor and relay) needs to produce the magnetizing flux. KVA is Apparent Power. It is the vectorial summation of KVAR and KW.

Power Factor Basics

Power Factor Basics

Power Factor Improvement

Effects of Reactive Power / Low pf

Reactive power entails:

increased magnetizing current for given kW leading to higher kVAr. Additional I2R loss of energy in the form of heat in every item of system Voltage drop in the reactive circuit kW output of transformer, T& D system is hampered. Thus handling capacity of the equipment reduces. Reduction of system efficiency.

Power Factor Improvement

How Do I Correct (Improve) My Power Factor?
We have seen that inductive loads decrease power factor: Transformers Induction motors Induction generators (wind mill generators) High intensity discharge (HID) lighting Similarly, equipments that increase power factor: Capacitors Synchronous generators Synchronous motors Thus, it comes as no surprise that one way to increase power factor is to add capacitors to the system.

Power Factor Improvement

How Do I Correct (Improve) My Power Factor?
Installing capacitors decreases the magnitude of reactive power (KVAR or foam), thus increasing your power factor. Here is how it works

Reactive power (KVArs), caused by inductive loads, always acts at a 90-degree angle to working power (KW).

Power Factor Improvement

Benefits of PF Improvement 1. Reactive component of the network is reduced and so also the total current in the system from the source end. 2. I2R power losses are reduced in the system because of reduction in current. % power loss reduction = 100 x{1- (PF old/PF New)2}
3.

Voltage level at the load end is increased. % voltage rise = kVAr of capacitor x % imp. of transformer kVA of transformer

Power Factor Improvement

4.

kVA loading on the source generators as also on the transformers and lines upto capacitors reduces, giving capacity relief. A high power factor can help in utilizing the full capacity of the electrical system.

Cost Benefits of PF Improvement

1. Reduced kVA (Maximum demand) charges in utility bill 2. Reduced distribution losses (KWH) within the plant network 3. Better voltage at motor terminals and improved performance of motors 4. A high power factor eliminates penalty charges imposed when operating with a low power factor 5. Investment on system facilities such as transformers, cables, switchgears etc for delivering load is reduced.

Selection of Capacitors
Capacitor sizing can be done by following equation: kVAr Rating = kW(Tan where,
Old

Tan

New

kVAr rating is the size of the capacitor needed, kW is the average power drawn, Old = Existing (Cos-1 PF) and New = Improved (Cos-1 PF)

Nomogram to determine Capacitor kVAr requirement for PF correction are available. Using the same one can suitably size the capacitor requirement to a desired power factor. Work out an example here

Location of Capacitors
It could be: At HT bus / transformer LT bus of transformer Main sub-plant buses Load points Remember: Maximum benefit, if pf correction is in the reverse order of flow of current. Hence: Identify the sources of low pf loads in plant Locate close to end equipment to reduce I2R loss Release of system capacity(kVA) happens if reactive current is reduced.

Location of Capacitors
Incoming supply

C4

Utilisation or distribution bus

C1 C3
M

C2

C2

Transformer
A transformer is an equipment which can accept energy at one voltage and deliver it at another voltage. Electrical energy generated at relatively low voltages is transmitted by transformers at high voltages and low currents, thus reducing line losses and voltage drop . Types of Transformers

Transformers are classified as two categories: 1. Power transformers: used in transmission network of higher voltages, deployed for step-up and step down transformer application (400 kV, 200 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV, 33kV)
2. Distribution transformers: used for lower voltage distribution networks as a means to end user connectivity. (11kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV, 440V, 230V)

Transformer Losses
For a given transformer, the manufacturer gives the values for no-load loss, PNO-LOAD, and load loss, PLOAD.

The total transformer loss, PTOTAL, at any load level can then be calculated from:
PTOTAL = PNO-LOAD+ (% Load/100)2 x PLOAD Where transformer loading is known, the actual transformers loss at given load can be computed as: PTOTAL = No-Load Loss+ (kVA Load/Rated kVA)2 x Full Load Loss

Transformer Voltage Control

The voltage regulation in transformers is done by altering the voltage transformation ratio with the help of tapping. There are two methods of tap changing facility available: Off-circuit tap changer: It is a device fitted in the transformer, which is used to vary the voltage transformation ratio. Here the voltage levels can be varied only after isolating the primary voltage of the transformer. On load tap changer (OLTC) : The voltage levels can be varied without isolating the connected load to the transformer. To minimise the magnetisation losses and to reduce the nuisance tripping of the plant The On-load gear can be put in auto mode or manually depending on the requirement. OLTC can be arranged for transformers of size 250 kVA onwards. However, the necessity of OLTC below 1000 kVA can be considered after calculating the cost economics.

What are Harmonics ? Harmonics in Power Systems

Harmonic is a component of a periodic wave having frequency that is an integral multiple of the

10

fundamental power line frequency of 50 Hz.

Majority of electric loads were linear i.e., wave shape of current mirrors the wave shape of applied voltage.

Now a days semiconductor device technologies are popular to enhance efficiency and/or controllability of

load.

Use of these led to non linear loads requiring nonsinusoidal currents containing harmonics.

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