Gravity

CHAPTER 4
Sections 4, 6, 7
Announcements
There are only 4 known forces in nature

• Gravitational Force
• Electric Force
Electromagnetic force
• Magnetic Force
• Nuclear Strong Force
• Nuclear Weak Force

Gravity is the only force which has significant strength over large distances.

Why does the electric force not act over great distances?

Because matter is globally neutral.

Planets Orbit the Sun in Elliptical Orbits
 Kepler’s Third Law

P2 = a3 applies only to planets orbiting our Sun.

 Stars also orbit each other in Ellipse

Star B
a = semi-major axis Apastron
a = the average orbital radius
Periastron r
p = periastron distance
A= c + a Star A  major axis 

= apastron distance a
p

 minor axis 
c
a = ½ (p+A)

Eccentricity, e = (A-p) / A+p)

 Planetary Orbits
• What keeps the planet in orbit?
• Why does the speed change?
• Why is the orbit elliptical?
• Why does the planet move around Sun
rather than the Sun moving around the
planet?
Force keeps planets in orbit
Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727)

• Isaac Newton developed three

principles, called the laws of
motion, that apply to the
motions of objects on Earth as
well as in space
• These are
• The law of inertia: a body
remains at rest, or moves in a
straight line at a constant
speed, unless acted upon by a
net outside force
• F=ma
• The principle of action and
reaction: whenever one body
exerts a force on a second
body, the second body exerts
an equal and opposite force on
the first body
 Gravity Near Earth’s Surface
• g = 9.81 m/s2 downward
• Gravitational force is given
by F = mg downward.
• Projectile path is parabolic in
the absence of air friction.
• Gravitational potential
energy, PE = mgh h
• Note that g diminishes with
altitude according to
Newton’s Universal Law of
Gravity

From Astronomy Today by Chaisson and McMillan

 Gravity Diminishes with Height
FB = ?
and
PE = ?
B
mass, m
Mass, M

Newton discovered A
expressions for F
and PE for any FA= mg
location, not just and
Earth’s surface. PE = mgh
 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

Mm
F G 2
R
F = gravitational force between two objects
M = mass of first object in kilograms
m = mass of second object
R= distance between objects centres in metres
G = universal constant of gravitation

• If the masses are measured in kilograms and the distance between

them in meters, then the force is measured in Newtons
• Laboratory experiments have yielded a value for G of
G = 6.67 × 10–11 N • m2/kg2
 Gravitational Potential Energy
Mm
PE  G
R
• Where is the potential energy the greatest?
• What roll does the negative sign play? Why not just
get rid of it?
• What do we mean by “gravitational potential well”
 Newton’s Universal Law of Gravity
F = G Mm
R2
−11 N ⋅m 2
G = 6.67 ×10 kg 2

The gravitational force Inside the star, the

becomes very week at large force of gravity begins
distances, but can become to decrease. WHY?
very large at near distances.

Note the R is measured from Outside star

the centre of the objects, and
that two objects cannot get
closer than the sum of their
individual radii.
Universal Law Predicts Kepler’s Laws

Newton’s description of gravity accounts

for Kepler’s
laws and explains the orbital motions of the
planets and the interaction between stars
and galaxies. In fact, it governs the
expansion of the universe.
Kepler’s 3rd Law for Circular Orbits
Gravitational Force Centripetal Force

F  G Mm
R2
Fc  m v
R
2

v 2 Mm
m G 2
R R

M 2 R
G  v G
M
Orbital Speed
R P R

4 R
2 3
v
distance 2 R
 Orbital Speed
P 
2
time P
G M
Kepler’s 3rd Law
Both objects orbit the centre of mass

Centre of
mass

MR=mr V
r m
R x
M v
If R and r can be found by direct
observation, and M+m can be found
from Kepler’s 3rd Law, then the
individual masses can be calculated
(binary stars)

If M and m were connected R r

by a rigid massless rod, this
is where they would
balance.
 True Situation

• Gravitational forces between two objects are

equal and opposite. Hence, it is not possible
for star A to orbit star B without star B
orbiting star A.
• In a binary system, the two stars have a
common focus around which the stars rotate
such that the two stars always lie
diametrically opposite each other through
the common focus.
• The orbital period of each star is the same.
• The more massive star has the smaller orbit.
• The more massive star has a smaller orbital
speed.
• For a planet orbiting a star, the star moves
very little.
 Newton’s form of Kepler’s Third Law
(using SI units)

4π a 2 3
P = 2

G M +m
• P = period is seconds
• a = Semi-major axis in metres
• M and m = mass in kilograms
• G = 6.67 x10-11 N-m2/kg2
 Newton’s form of Kepler’s Third Law
(using solar units)
3
a
P = 2

M +m
• P = period in years
• a = semi-major axis in AU
• M and m = mass in solar masses

If astronomers can measure the period and separation of binary stars,

then they can determine the combined mass of the stars.
Orbits may be any of a family of curves
called conic sections

Circular and elliptical orbits are bound orbits.

Parabolic and hyperbolic orbits are unbound orbits.
 •The type of orbit
depends upon the
speed and the
Type of Orbit
direction.
•It requires a very
specific speed and
‘initial’ velocity to
create a circular
orbit.
•The escape
velocity is the
minimum velocity
that an object must
travel to escape
from another. The
escape velocity
produces a parabolic
From orbit.
Astronomy Today by Chaisson and McMillan
 Escape Speed
Using concepts from conservation of mechanical energy and gravitational
potential energy, it can be shown that the escape velocity of a small mass
from a large mass is given by

2GM
vesc   2  vorbital
r
Find Earth’s escape speed

G = universal gravitational constant G =6.67 x10 -11

M = mass of the large object in kg M =5.97 x1024 kg
r = radius of the object in metres r = 6380,000 m

This result requires an expression for the GMm which can be derived
gravitational potential energy, given by PE g = −
r using calculus
 Forces between and within Galaxies

DISCUSSION: Suppose that our solar system existed in one of the tidal
streamers, what effect would it have on our solar system?
 Review Questions
1. What fundamental laws of nature explain the motions
of objects on Earth as well as the motions of the
planets and stars?
2. Why don’t the planets fall into the Sun?
3. State Newton’s three laws
4. State Kepler’s three laws
5. What do we mean by escape velocity
6. Which set of law are more basic, Newton’s or
Kepler’s?
7. Describe the type of possible of orbits of one star
around another or a planet around the sun.
8. How are tides produced? Do they occur only in Earth’s
oceans?
9. Distinguish between weight and mass.
End of Presentation