Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
The space era started in 1957 with the launching of the first artificial satellite (sputnik)
Satellite Communications
Satellite-based antenna(e) in stable orbit above earth. Two or more (earth) stations communicate via one or more satellites serving as relay(s) in space. Uplink: earth->satellite. Downlink: satellite->earth. Transponder: satellite electronics converting uplink signal to downlink.
Satellite Communications
Satellite Transponder is a microwave device consisting of receiver, repeater and regenerator in orbit Satellite transmission involves sending signals to satellite that receive, amplify, and transmit back to earth
Point-to-multipoint transmission
Data communication Internet Video conference
A single geostationary satellite can provide communications coverage for some 42.4% of the Earths surface, using much less power and much less infrastructure than would be required for a terrestrial system with similar coverage.
WIDEBAND SERVICE
High availability
There are very few sources of disruption to the Earth-satellite propagation path that cannot be factored into the original link budget, which means that satellite communications have a very high availability.
Good quality
Again, since the variations in the satellite path are few and well-characterized, the link budget for a particular path can be determined to guarantee a desired level of quality of service.
Satellite Services
FSS Fixed Satellite Services (VSAT networks,..) MSS Mobile Satellite Services (Inmarsat systems,...) BSS Broadcasting Satellite Services ( TV, DVB..) RDSS Radiodetermination Satellite Services (GPS)
Satellite Orbits
Satellite Orbits
GEO advantages: - the satellite appears to be fixed (immovable) when viewed from the Earth, no tracking required for earth station antennas - about. 40% of the earth`s surface is in view from the satellite disadvantages: - high attenuation level (power loss) (200dB) on the path - large signal delay (238-284ms) - polar regions (latitudes > 81 deg.) are not covered LEO advantages: - much smaller attenuation compare GEO satellites - low signal delay disadvantages: - short period satellite visibility (through earth station), many times during the day - Doppler effect - many satellites are required for establishing continuous transmission
Orbits I
Four different types of satellite orbits can be identified depending on the shape and diameter of the orbit: GEO: geostationary orbit,36000 km above earth surface LEO (Low Earth Orbit): 500 - 1500 km MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) or ICO (Intermediate Circular Orbit): ca. 6000 - 20000 km HEO (Highly Elliptical Orbit) elliptical orbits
Orbits II
GEO (Inmarsat) HEO LEO (Globalstar, Irdium) earth 1000 10000 MEO (ICO) inner and outer Van Allen belts
Van-Allen-Belts: ionized particels 2000 - 6000 km and 15000 - 30000 km above earth surface
35768 km
Geostationary satellites
Orbit 35.786 km distance to earth surface, orbit in equatorial plane (inclination 0) complete rotation exactly one day, satellite is synchronous to earth rotation fix antenna positions, no adjusting necessary satellites typically have a large footprint (up to 34% of earth surface!), therefore difficult to reuse frequencies bad elevations in areas with latitude above 60 due to fixed position above the equator high transmit power needed high latency due to long distance (ca. 275 ms) not useful for global coverage for small mobile phones and data transmission, typically used for radio and TV transmission
LEO systems
Orbit ca. 500 - 1500 km above earth surface visibility of a satellite ca. 10 - 40 minutes global radio coverage possible latency comparable with terrestrial long distance connections, ca. 5 - 10 ms smaller footprints, better frequency reuse but now handover necessary from one satellite to another many satellites necessary for global coverage more complex systems due to moving satellites Examples: Iridium (start 1998, 66 satellites) Globalstar (start 1999, 48 satellites)
MEO systems
Orbit ca. 5000 - 12000 km above earth surface comparison with LEO systems: slower moving satellites less satellites needed simpler system design for many connections no hand-over needed higher latency, ca. 70 - 80 ms higher sending power needed special antennas for small footprints needed Example: ICO (Intermediate Circular Orbit, Inmarsat) start ca. 2000
GEO vs LEO
GEO advantages: - the satellite appears to be fixed (immovable) when viewed from the Earth, no tracking required for earth station antennas - about. 40% of the earth`s surface is in view from the satellite disadvantages: - high attenuation level (power loss) (200dB) on the path - large signal delay (238-284ms) - polar regions (latitudes > 81 deg.) are not covered LEO advantages: - much smaller attenuation compare GEO satellites - low signal delay disadvantages: - short period satellite visibility (through earth station), - many times during the day - Doppler effect - many satellites are required for establishing continuous transmission
Communication Satellites
Spectrum Allocation
Frequency Spectrum concepts: Frequency: Rate at which an electromagnetic wave reverts its polarity (oscillates) in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz). Wavelength: distance between wavefronts in space. Given in meters as:
= c/f
Where: c = speed of light (3x108 m/s in vacuum) f = frequency in Hertz Frequency band: range of frequencies. Bandwidth: Size or width (in Hertz) or a frequency band. Electromagnetic Spectrum: full extent of all frequencies from zero to infinity.
Microwave Frequencies
Sub-range of the RF frequencies approximately from 1GHz to 30GHz. Main properties: Line of sight propagation (space and atmosphere). Blockage by dense media (hills, buildings, rain) Wide bandwidths compared to lower frequency bands. Compact antennas, directionality possible. Reduced efficiency of power amplification as frequency grows: Radio Frequency Power OUT Direct Current Power IN
Frequency Bands
Frequency allocation
Ban d U h f M il it ar y S Ban d L Ban d C B a n d - C o m m e rc ia l X B a n d - M i lita ry K u B a n d - C o m m e rc ia l K a B a n d - C o m m e rc ia l K a B a n d - M ilita ry Q / V G e o s ta t io n a ry Q / V N o n -g e o s ta t io na ry W Ban d D o w n lin k B a n d s , G H z U p l in k B a n d s , G H z 0. 25 - 0. 2 7 (A p p ro xim a te ly 0 . 29 2 - 0. 31 2 (A p p ro xim a te ly ) )
3. 7 - 4 .2 7. 25 - 7. 7 5 11 .7 - 1 2. 2 17 .7 - 2 1. 2 20 .2 - 2 1. 2 37 .5 - 4 0. 5 37 .5 - 3 8. 5 66 .0 - 6 7. 0
5. 92 5 - 6. 42 5 7. 9 - 8 .4 14 .0 - 1 4. 5 27 .5 - 3 0. 0 43 .5 - 4 5. 5 47 .2 - 5 0. 2 48 .2 - 4 9. 2 71 .0 - 7 2. 0
Antennas
C-Band
Ku-band
Atmospheric attenuation
Affected by oxygen, water, angle of elevation, and higher frequencies
Applications
Traditionally weather satellites radio and TV broadcast satellites military satellites satellites for navigation and localization (e.g., GPS) Telecommunication global telephone connections replaced by fiber optics backbone for global networks connections for communication in remote places or underdeveloped areas global mobile communication
Signals
Signals: Carried by wires as voltage or current Transmitted through space as electromagnetic waves. Analog: Voltage or Current proportional to signal. E.g. Telephone. Digital: Generated by computers. Ex. Binary = 1 or 0 corresponding to +1V or 1V.
Orbital Mechanics
Part 1
s = ut + (1/2)at2 v2 = u2 + 2at v = u + at F = ma
FORCE ON A SATELLITE
Force = Mass Acceleration Unit of Force is a Newton A Newton is the force required to accelerate 1 kg by 1 m/s2 Underlying units of a Newton are therefore (kg) (m/s2)
ACCELERATION FORMULA
a = acceleration due to gravity = / r2 km/s2 r = radius from center of earth = universal gravitational constant G multiplied by the mass of the earth ME is Keplers constant and = 3.9861352 105 km3/s2 G = 6.672 10-11 Nm2/kg2 or 6.672 10-20 km3/kg s2 in the older units
FORCE ON A SATELLITE : 2
Inward (i.e. centripetal force)
Since Force = Mass Acceleration If the Force inwards due to gravity = FIN then FIN = m ( / r2)
= m (GME / r2)
v (velocity) F2 F1
(Gravitational Force) (Inertial-Centrifugal Force)
FORCE ON A SATELLITE
Forces acting on a satellite in a stable orbit around the earth. Gravitational force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the centers of gravity of the satellite and the planet the satellite is orbiting, in this case the earth. The gravitational force inward (FIN, the centripetal force) is directed toward the center of gravity of the earth. The kinetic energy of the satellite (FOUT, the centrifugal force) is directed diametrically opposite to the gravitational force. Kinetic energy is proportional to the square of the velocity of the satellite. When these inward and outward forces are balanced, the satellite moves around the earth in a free fall trajectory: the satellites orbit.
FREE FALL???
ORBIT LIMITS
Geographical Coordinates
Earth Centric Coordinate System
The earth is at the center of the coordinate system Reference planes coincide with the equator and the polar axis
F
r
3
F =
GMEmr
Equation (2.7)
G = Gravitational constant = 6.672 10-11 Nm2/kg2 ME = Mass of the earth (and GME = = Keplers constant) m = mass of satellite r = satellite orbit radius from center of earth
r= unit vector in the r direction (positive r is away from earth)
d r =m dt 2
2
Equation (2.8)
r d r 3 = r dt 2
dt r
THE ORBIT
We have a second order differential equation See text for a way to find a solution If we re-define our co-ordinate system into polar coordinates (see Fig.) we can re-write equation as two second order differential equations in terms of r0 and 0
Polar Coordinates
In the plane of the orbit
Polar coordinate system in the plane of the satellites orbit. The plane of the orbit coincides with the plane of the paper. The axis z0 is straight out of the paper from the center of the earth, and is normal to the plane of the satellites orbit. The satellites position is described in terms of the radius from the center of the earth r0 and the angle this radius makes with the x0 axis, o.
THE ORBIT
We have a second order differential equation If we re-define our coordinate system into polar coordinates (see Fig. 2.3) we can re-write equation (2.5) as two second order differential equations in terms of r0 and 0.
and
THE ORBIT
Solving the two differential equations leads to six constants (the orbital constants) which define the orbit, and three laws of orbits (Keplers Laws of Planetary Motion) Johaness Kepler (1571 - 1630) a German Astronomer and Scientist
P(x,y)
x
V(-a,0)
F(-c,0) (0,-b)
F(c,0)
V(a,0)
a2 = b2 + c2
Points (-c,0) and (c,0) are the foci. Points (-a,0) and (a,0) are the vertices. Line between vertices is the major axis. a is the length of the semimajor axis. Line between (0,b) and (0,-b) is the minor axis. b is the length of the semiminor axis.
Standard Equation: 2
x y2 + 2 =1 2 a b
Area of ellipse:
A = ab
p r1 = 1 e * cos( 1) +
e = eccentricity e<1 ellipse e = 0 circle r0 = distance of a point in the orbit to the center of the earth p = geometrical constant (width of the conic section at the focus) p=a(1-e2) 0 = angle between r0 and the perigee
T2 = (4 2 a3) /
(Equation 2.21)
M = arc length (in radians) that the satellite would have traversed since perigee passage if it were moving around the circumscribed circle with a mean angular velocity
ORBIT CHARACTERISTICS
p a= 2 1 e
b = a 1e
p=
h C
2
2 1/ 2
e=
ORBIT ECCENTRICITY
If a = semi-major axis, b = semi-minor axis, and e = eccentricity of the orbit ellipse, then
a b e= a +b
NOTE: For a circular orbit, a = b and e = 0
Time reference
tp Time of Perigee = Time of closest approach to the earth, at the same time, time the satellite is crossing the x0 axis, according to the reference used. t- tp = time elapsed since satellite last passed the perigee.