The Romans

753 B.C.E -410 C.E

Roman Timeline

Legendary founding of Rome by Romulus and Remus 753 B.C.E Roman Republic 509 B.C.E 27 B.C.E Early Roman Empire 27 B.C.E 192 C.E Late Roman Empire 192 C.E 410 C.E

Key Ideas

Roman artwork (Influenced by Greek artwork) reflects the ambitions of a powerful empire monumental buildings and sculptures were built to the glory of their gods and to that of the state. Roman architecture is revolutionary in its understanding of the powers of the arch, the vault, and concrete. A history of Roman painting survives on the walls of Pompeiian villas. Romans showed an interest in the basic elements of perspective and foreshortening. Roman sculptures are greatly indebted to Greek models

Romes Founding

Romulus and Remus were the sons of Rhea Silva son of Numitor the rightful king of Alba Longa. When Romulus and Remus where born Amulus the brother of Numitor left them to die. The new king feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, so he ordered them to be drowned. But they did not die. Instead they were suckled by a she-wolf and later fostered by a shepherd who raised them to manhood as shepherds.
When Romulus and Remus were men they killed Amulus and restored Numitor as the ruler of Alba Longa. Then they decided to create a new city for themselves. But could not find a location. Both brothers fought until it cost Remus his life. Eventually Romulus creats the new city and names it Rome. Romulus tries to expand the city by kidnaping women from Sabie. This starts a war but combines the Sabies and Romans as one people. From a hillside village to world power, Rome has risen to glory by diplomatic and militaristic might in the world. The effects of Roman civilization are still felt today in the areas of Law, literature and the fine arts (referring to architecture of certain buildings, books, poems, etc., and sculptures). The legendary founders of Rome, Romulus established a civilization that was at first ruled by a monarchy (Kings and royals) who were soon enough overthrown and replaced by a Senate. The Romans soon established a democracy of some sort, with magistrates ruling the country in hand with the Senate, an elected body of privileged men.

Romes Government

The Roman government (in its entire history from founding to fall) was a strange mix of a democracy and a republic. An interesting fact is that the people of Rome took many of their ideas of government from the Ancient Greeks. The Roman state was described as the republic (respublica) and its consuls, or chief magistrates, continued to be appointed even after the establishment of one-man rule under the empire, but in its pure form it lasted only until the beginning of the first century B.C.At the creation of the republic, supreme power probably resided with a popular assembly, but early on the Senate became very influential, and the traditional formula, which survived for centuries, was S.P.Q.R. - Senatus Populusque Romanus - the Roman Senate and People acting together.Since the Ancient Romans did not want one man to make all of the laws, they decided to balance the power of the government between three branches, there was first the executive branch, then the legislative branch, and finally the judicial branch.

Roman Government Hierarchy

The Political Hierarchy is a forum (no pun intended) for Roman administration through both the Senate and the Plebeian Assembly. The Consuls run the Senate which represents the Noble Houses. The Tribune of the Plebs represents Plebian and Equestrian interests in the Senate and is capable of Vetoing Senate legislation. This format provides for a great deal of pomp and circumstance while ensuring that the wants, needs, and expectations of each Roman citizen are at least recognized. The information presented here are excerpts from Rome's Guidelines and Structure, our "Mos Maiorum. A Roman Official or Magistrate may be called upon by the Senate or Imperator to act as a representative of Rome. Roman Officials were historically notorious for sticking their unwanted noses into the business of foreign nations and dignitaries. The Official's function may be diplomatic, investigative, to serve a summons, or to represent Rome's interests on a medieval society's council. In any case, the Official carries the full weight of Roman authority. Upon completion of the task, the Official shall report the results to the Senate. Then there is the Ceasar who leads the armies and discusses political things with the senate.

Roman Government Hierarchy (Cont.)

Following a term in a politically elected office, the Magistrate's title is altered by adding the suffix "pro" for the following six-month term. For instance, an ex-Praetor becomes the Propraetor, the ex-Consul becomes the Proconsul, etc. This is strictly an honorary title and accords no powers to the individual. Historically the Proconsuls and Propraetors would be given a province to govern (bleed dry) and would not be seen in Rome for at least a year.

Roman People Hierarchy

Roman society is largely viewed as hierarchical, with slaves (servi) at the bottom, freedmen (liberti) above them, and free-born citizens (cives) at the top. Free citizens were also divided by class. The broadest, and earliest, division was between the patricians, who could trace their ancestry to one of the 100 Patriarchs at the founding of the city, and the plebeians, who could not. This became less important in the later Republic, as some plebeian families became wealthy and entered politics, and some patrician families fell on hard times. Anyone, patrician or plebeian, who could count a consul as his ancestor was a noble (nobilis); a man who was the first of his family to hold the consulship, such as Marius or Cicero, was known as a novus homo ("new man") and ennobled his descendants. Patrician ancestry, however, still conferred considerable prestige, and many religious offices remained restricted to patricians.

Roman Jobs

Jobs in Ancient Rome were similar to those needed in an ancient towns and countries. The jobs that differed vastly were those in political areas and the military which were specific to Roman society and their vast empire. The obvious other difference was the Romans dependence on slaves. The majority of Roman slaves were placed in positions where they had to undertake the most menial, arduous and unpleasant tasks, however slaves with suitable backgrounds were given the roles such as teachers and artists.

Roman Job List

Ancient Roman Jobs fell into various categories: Political Administration Military Farming Trades Merchants Construction Religious Entertainment Artists Lawyers Teachers

Roman Jobs (cont.)

Ancient Roman Jobs - Politicians The politicians of Ancient Rome held the power and at first consisted of only Patricians. As time went by the Plebeians were also allowed to take political office. Some of the jobs included the following: Senators who sat on the Chief Council of Rome. There were about 600 members who reported directly to the emperor Provincial Governors Magistrates Quaestor Aedile Praetor Consul Equites also known as 'knights' and had control over administration and finance Censor - maintain the census of citizens and senators and collected taxes

The Roman Army

The early Roman army, however, was a different thing altogether than the later imperial army. At first, under the Etruscan Kings, the massive Greek phalanx was the mode of battle. Early Roman soldiers hence must have looked much like Greek hoplites. A key moment in Roman history was the introduction of the census (the counting of the people) under Servius Tullius. With this the citizens were graded into five classes, from these classes were in varying degrees recruited the ranks of the army. The most wealthy, the first class, were the most heavily armed, equipped like the Greek hoplite warrior with helmet, round shield, greaves and breastplate, all of bronze, and carrying a spear and sword.
The lesser classes bore lesser armament and weaponry, the fifth class carrying no armour at all, solely armed with slings. The army officers as well as the cavalry were drawn from leading citizens who were enrolled as equestrians (equites). All in all the Roman army consisted of 18 centuries of equites, 82 centuries of the first class (of which 2 centuries were engineers), 20 centuries each of the second, third and fourth classes and 32 centuries of the fifth class (of which 2 centuries were trumpeters).

The Roman Army (cont.)

In the early fourth century BC Rome received its greatest humiliation, as the Gauls sacked Rome itself. If Rome was to reestablish her authority of central Italy, and be prepared to meet any similar disasters in future, some reorganization was needed. These changes were traditionally by the later Romans believed to have been the work of the great hero Fluvius Camillus, but it appears more likely that the reforms were introduced gradually during the second half of the fourth century BC. Undoubtedly the most important change was the abandonment of the use of the Greek phalanx. Italy was not governed by city states like Greece, where armies met on large plains, deemed suitable by both sides, to reach a decision. Far more it was a collection of hill tribes using the difficult terrain to their advantage. Something altogether more flexible was needed to combat such foes than the unwieldy, slow-moving phalanx. Basically throughout the Roman History their armies have grew and evolved their weapons, and tactics.

Roman Military Rank Structure

Legionary rank structure :Recruits Tiro (recruit). He was not yet subjected to full rigours of military discipline untill he passed out and was registered as a real soldier, no regular pay so presumably living of his enlistment bounty or viaticum. Lower ranks Miles (private) also: munifex (fatigue worker) or gregralis / gregarius (literally: herd animal). He was on basic pay and eligible for fatigue duties. Legionary cavalrymen had higher basic pay, as did their NCO's due to the higher cost of equipment and may have had immunis status as a rule, though this is not certain. Discens (trainee). Private in training for special function, basic pay and eligible to fatigue duties. Immunis (immune (from fatigues)). Attested from the second century AD onwards, the late first century opera vacans may have been an earlier designation for the same position. Specialist with basic pay and immunity from certain fatigue duties, could apparently be granted this status both indefinitely and temporarily as one inscription lists an immunis perpetuus.

Roman Military Rank Structure (cont.)

Non commissioned officers: Sesquiplicarius (NCO on basic pay and a half). Junior NCO. Example: tesserarius (NCO in charge of watch words) and vexillarius or vexillifer (flag bearer). Duplicarius (NCO on double basic pay). Senior NCO. Examples: optio centuriae (rearrank officer), signifer (standardbearer), cornicularius (administrator), aquilifer (eagle standard bearer). Epigraphic evidence for career structures does not allow to distinguish a coherent system of promotion between these first three different duplicarius functions, so perhaps there were either frequently changes in status between the three of them or all three were of identical seniority. Note that optio ('chosen man') could also be used for mere privates with special duties rather than real NCO's leading to some confusion in determining career patterns. Triplicarius (NCO on triple basic pay). Senior NCO. Evidence for this rank is very rare and it may have existed for only a brief while. Salararius or salaratus. Some soldiers with special skills served against non standard service conditions, either as mercenaries or reenlisted veterans, and received salaria instead of regular stipendia, a special rate of pay. Duplicarii and sesquiplicarii combined became known as principales from the second century AD on. Cavalry NCO's received double the higher cavalryman's basic pay (stipendia equestria). Discharge benefits, praemia or commoda, and special bonuses, donativa, followed the same rates as basic pay.

Roman Military Rank Structure (cont.)

Subaltern officers: Centurio ('commander of hundred', officer in command of a centuria) also ordinarius or title derived from original place in the battle order. There was some variation in seniority and remuneration between these officers. Those with prior in their titles (hastatus prior, princeps prior and pilus prior) led the manipuli with officers with posterior in their titles (hastatus posterior, princeps posterior and pilus posterior) acting as deputies. Pili could also be named triarius, though this was very rare under the empire (one certain case, one possible). It is thought that the pilus prior was in command of a legion's cohort. Pay for all these officers was at least fifteen times that of a ranker. The socalled primi ordines, the centurions of the first cohort, had much higher status and pay (estimated at at least thirty times basic pay) than the other officers. The primus pilus was the most senior centurion and received 60 times basic pay plus entry into the equestrian order after completion of his stint. In addition to the 59 or 60 ordinarii (those actually commanding an ordo or centuria of the legion) there was an unknown number of supernumerarii attached to each legion. These officers had special functions in the legionary cavalry, military intelligence, medical service, elite legionary infantry and various other postings in the governor's staff or imperial horse guards.

Roman Military Rank Structure (cont.)

The centurions were either equestrians or curiales directly commissioned from civilian life or had started out as buck privates and earned their position by serving in NCO postings in the legion or the imperial praetorian guard. Directly commissioned equestrian officers may have had different pay as they received salaria instead of the usual stipendia. Note that there were, as far as can be established with our present sources, no decuriones for the imperial era legionary horse in contrast with the republican legion. Apparently these cavalrymen were now commanded either by centurions or NCO's. Senior officers: Tribunus. There were six of these officers to a legion and usually there were five equestrian tribuni angusticlavii and one senatorial tribunus laticlavius, named thin - or broad striped after the purple lines on their tunics that indicated their social status. The last one was had higher status and functioned as second-in-command of the legion. The equestrians were generally career officers with previous commands over auxiliary foot regiments, for senatorial youths this was often their first post. Some tribuni served only six month tours rather than the more usual 1-3 years. A few served two or even rarer three stints of duty. Though modern works often ascribe these officers purely administrative tasks, the source material indicates that these had by no means replaced their tactical command function. Praefectus castrorum. This camp commandant usually had held the post of senior centurion and was in charge of a host of tasks. Of equestrian status, he was third in the chain of command, except in Egypt and later also in special circumstances when this officer acted as praefectus legionis, sometimes with the additional designation agens in vice legati, acting in place of a legate.

Roman Military Rank Structure (cont.)

Legatus legionis. A senatorial officer who generally had seen prior service as tribunus and was placed in charge of the legion. Some special cases included equestrians elevated to senatorial status with previous commands in the auxilia.

Roman Art

Roman art did not get a start until 500 B. C. Before this the Romans copied the art of the Etruscans. About 200 B. C. the Romans conquered the Greeks and began copying their art style. During their conquest of Greece, the Romans looted the towns. They brought the art home. They also captured sculptors and brought them to Rome as slaves. Beginning with the Roman Republic the Romans started making statues that really looked like one particular person. The Romans were far more realistic than the Greeks with their statues. The Greeks tried to build statues to illustrate the "ideal" person. The Romans believed that having a good image of somebody's face kept its ghost happy. As the Roman Empire became larger the Britons, Spanish, Carthaginians, Phoenicians, etc. mixed their art styles with the Romans styles to form many different styles throughout the Mediterranean area. Around 200 A. D. the German influence was first seen in the Roman art. At this time the art showed people suffering such as having their head cut off or their insides ripped out. The drill was invented making sculpting easier and faster. This gave the art a little different look. By the 300's A. D. Christianity influence began to show up in Roman art. The artwork had less blood and gore. Some figures were sculpted with the eyes looking towards heaven. At this time the body was less important. Sculptors took less time with the body and at times the body was not in the correct proportions.

Roman Art (Cont.)

Frescoes, painting on plaster, became popular during the first century A. D. The paintings were painted on a specially prepared wall with three layers of plaster and three layers of a special coating. Colors were applied to the top layer while it was wet. This made the fresco durable and able to hold up well over a long period of time. The Romans also painted on canvas. They often painted battle scenes. These were displayed in temples or in public buildings. Unfortunately none of these have withstood time.

Pompeii. Villa of the Mysteries

Roman Art (cont.)

The Romans painted murals. These depicted everyday scenes around Rome. They also painted mythological scenes such as the heroic deeds of Hercules, Achilles, Ulysses, and Theseus.

Pompeii. House of the Fontana Piccola. Painting to R. of fountain

Roman Art (cont.)

Mosaics were also popular. These were made with small pieces of tile that fit together like a puzzle.

Pompeii. House of the Tragic Poet. "Cave Canem" mosaic

Roman Sculptures

The study of ancient Roman sculpture is complicated by its relation to Greek sculpture Many examples of even the most famous Greek sculptures, such as the Apollo Belvedere and Barberini Faun, are known only from Roman Imperial or Hellenistic "copies." At one time, this imitation was taken by art historians as indicating a narrowness of the Roman artistic imagination, but in the late 20th-century, Roman art began to be reevaluated on its own terms: some impressions of the nature of Greek sculpture may in fact be based on Roman artistry.

Roman Paintings

While the traditional view of Roman artists is that they often borrowed from, and copied Greek precedents (much of the Greek sculpture known today is in the form of Roman marble copies), more recent analysis has indicated that Roman art is a highly creative pastiche relying heavily on Greek models but also encompassing Etruscan, native Italic, and even Egyptian visual culture. Stylistic eclecticism and practical application are the hallmarks of much Roman art.

Roman Architecture

Ancient Roman architecture adopted certain aspects of Ancient Greek architecture, creating a new architectural style. The Romans were indebted to their Etruscan neighbors and forefathers who supplied them with a wealth of knowledge essential for future architectural solutions, such as hydraulics and in the construction of arches. Later they absorbed Greek and Phoenician influence, apparent in many aspects closely related to architecture; for example, this can be seen in the introduction and use of the Triclinium in Roman villas as a place and manner of dining. Roman architecture flourished throughout the Empire during the Pax Romana. Social elements such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new (architectural) solutions of their own. The use of vaults and arches, together with a sound knowledge of building materials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing structures for public use.

Early Roman Empire

In 27 B.C., Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus was awarded the honorific title of Augustus by a decree of the Senate. So began the Roman empire and the principate of the Julio-Claudians: Augustus (r. 27 B.C.14 A.D.), Tiberius (r. 1437 A.D.), Gaius Germanicus, known as Caligula (r. 3741 A.D.), Claudius (r. 4154 A.D.), and Nero (r. 5468 A.D.). The Julio-Claudians, Roman nobles with an impressive ancestry, maintained Republican ideals and wished to involve the Senate and other Roman aristocrats in the government. This, however, eventually led to a decline in the power of the Senate and the extension of imperial control through equestrian officers and imperial freedmen. Peace and prosperity were maintained in the provinces and foreign policy, especially under Augustus and Tiberius, relied more on diplomacy than military force. With its borders secure and a stable central government, the Roman empire enjoyed a period of prosperity, technological advance, great achievements in the arts, and flourishing trade and commerce. Under Caligula, much time and revenues were devoted to extravagant games and spectacles, while under Claudius, the empireand especially Italy and Rome itselfbenefited from the emperor's administrative reforms and enthusiasm for public works programs. Imperial expansion brought about colonization, urbanization, and extension of Roman citizenship in the provinces. The succeeding emperor, Nero, was a connoisseur and patron of the arts. He also extended the frontiers of the empire, but antagonized the upper class and failed to hold the loyalty of the Roman legions. Amid rebellion and civil war, the Julio-Claudian dynasty "came to an inglorious end with Nero's suicide in 68 A.D."

Late Roman Empire

The late Roman empire was a formidable and successful power, after some very difficult times in the mid-third century. For most of the fourth century the greater part of the Roman world enjoyed a period of tranquillity and prosperity, though this ended dramatically in the Balkan provinces in 378, when the emperor Valens was defeated and killed at the hands of the Goths. In the fifth century, the western empire was gradually overrun by Germanic invaders, though a western emperor survived at least in name until 476. By contrast, the eastern empire, now centred on Constantinople, flourished during the fifth century, and in the sixth (under the emperor Justinian) even launched a programme of reconquest of several of the western provinces.

The late Roman period (which we are defining as, roughly, AD 250450) saw very important changes within the empire, which included a realignment of political power (away from the cities, and in favour of the central state), and, above all, the momentous abandonment of Roman polytheism in favour of the new religion, Christianity. This religious change (which determined the religious and cultural future of western Eurasia) has always been, and remains, an area of intensive research. In recent decades there has also been a remarkable growth of interest in the political, social, economic and cultural history of the later empire, which was once dismissed and ignored as a mere shadow (in both power and culture) of earlier classical times.

Vocabulary/Images
Aqueduct- an overground water system

Vocabulary (cont.)

Atrium- (plural atria) a courtyard in a Roman house or before a Christian church

Vocabulary (cont.)

Basilica- in Roman Architecture, a largely axially planned building with a nave, side aisles, and apses.

Vocabulary (cont.)

Bust- a sculpture depicting a head, neck, and upper chest of a figure.

Vocabulary (cont.)

Coffer- in architecture, a sunken panel in the ceiling.

Vocabulary (cont.)

Contrapposto- a graceful arrangement of the body based on tilted shoulders and hips and bent knees.

Vocabulary (cont.)

Cubiculum- (plural cubicula) a Roman bedroom flanking an atrium; in Early Christian art, a mortuary chapel in a catacomb.

Vocabulary (cont.)

Cupola- a small dome rising over the roof of a building; in architecture, a cupola is achieved by rotating an arch on its axis

Vocabulary (cont.)

Encaustic- an ancient method of painting that uses colored waxes burned into a wooden surface.

Vocabulary (cont.)

Foreshortening- a visual effect in which an object is shortened and turned deeper into the picture plane to give the effect of receding in space.

Vocabulary (cont.)

Forum- (plural fora) a public square or market place in a Roman city.

Vocabulary (cont.)

Fresco- a painting technique that involves applying water-based paint onto a freshly plastered wall. The paint forms a bond with the plaster that is durable and longlasting.

Vocabulary (cont.)

Impluvium- a rectangular basin in a Roman house that is placed in the open-air atrium in order to collect rainwater.

Vocabulary (cont.)

Keystone- the center stone of an arch that holds the others in place.

Vocabulary (cont.)

Oculus- a circular window in a church, or a round opening at the top of a dome.

Vocabulary (cont.)

Peristyle- an atrium surrounded by columns in a Roman house.

Vocabulary (cont.)

Perspective- depth and recession in a painting. Objects shown in linear perspective achieve a three-dimensionality in the two-dimensional world of the picture plane. All lines, called orthogonals, draw the viewer back in space to a common point, called the vanishing point. Paintings, however may have more than one vanishing point, with orthogonals leading the eye to several parts of the work.

Vocabulary (cont.)

Pier- a vertical support that holds up an arch or a vault

Vocabulary (cont.)

Spandrel- a triangular space enclosed by the curves of arches.

Vocabulary (cont.)

Vault- a roof constructed with arches. When an arch is extended in space, forming a tunnel, its is called a barred vault. When two barrel vaults intersect at right angles, it is called a groin vault.

Vocabulary (cont.)

Veristic- sculptures from the Roman Republic characterized by extreme realism of facial features.

Group Members: Christopher Medeiros Isabelle Deupi Charles Gonzalez Andrea Quinones Yuly L. Ariana Gutierrez The End