Chapter 4 Cellular Metabolism

Cells and the Flow of Energy

Energy is the ability to do work. Living things need to acquire energy; this
is a characteristic of life. Cells use acquired energy to: Maintain their organization Carry out reactions that allow cells to develop, grow, and reproduce

Forms of Energy

There are two basic forms of energy. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Potential energy is stored energy. Food eaten has potential energy because it can be converted into kinetic energy. Potential energy in foods is chemical energy. Organisms can convert chemical energy into a form of kinetic energy called mechanical energy for motion.

Two Laws of Thermodynamics

The flow of energy in ecosystems occurs
in one direction; energy does not cycle. The two laws of thermodynamics explain this phenomenon. First Law: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be changed from one form to another. Second Law: Energy cannot be changed from one form to another without loss of usable energy.

Flow of energy

 Energy exists in several different forms. When energy transformations occur,

energy is neither created nor destroyed but there is always loss of usable energy, usually as heat. For this reason, living things depend on an outside source of energy. The ultimate source of energy for ecosystems is the sun, and this energy is passed from plants to animals.

Cells and Entropy

The term entropy is used to indicate the relative
state of disorganization. Cells need a constant supply of energy to maintain their internal organization. Complex molecules like glucose tend to break apart into their building blocks, in this case carbon dioxide and water. This is because glucose is more organized, and thus less stable, than its breakdown products. The result is a loss of potential energy and an increase in entropy.

Cells and entropy

Metabolic Reactions and Energy Transformations

Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical
reactions that occur in a cell. Reactants are substances that participate in a reaction; products are substances that form as a result of a reaction. A reaction will occur spontaneously if it increases entropy. Biologists use the term free energy instead of entropy for cells.

 Free energy, G, is the amount of energy to

do work after a reaction has occurred. G (change in free energy) is calculated by subtracting the free energy of reactants from that of products. A negative G means the products have less free energy than the reactants, and the reaction will occur spontaneously.

 Exergonic reactions have a negative G

and energy is released. Endergonic reactions have a positive G and occur only if there is an input of energy. Energy released from exergonic reactions is used to drive endergonic reactions inside cells. ATP is the energy carrier between exergonic and endergonic reactions.

ATP: Energy for Cells

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the energy
currency of cells. ATP is constantly regenerated from ADP (adenosine diphosphate) after energy is expended by the cell. Use of ATP by the cell has advantages: 1) It can be used in many types of reactions. 2) When ATP ADP + P, energy released is sufficient for cellular needs and little energy is wasted.

 3) ATP is coupled to endergonic reactions

in such a way that it minimizes energy loss. ATP is a nucleotide made of adenine and ribose and three phosphate groups. ATP is called a high-energy compound because a phosphate group is easily removed.

The ATP cycle

Coupled Reactions
In coupled reactions, energy released by
an exergonic reaction drives an endergonic reaction.

Coupled reactions

Function of ATP
Cells make use of ATP for: Chemical work ATP supplies energy to

synthesize macromolecules, and therefore the organism Transport work ATP supplies energy needed to pump substances across the plasma membrane Mechanical work ATP supplies energy for cellular movements

Two types of metabolic reactions

Anabolism larger molecules are made requires energy

Catabolism larger molecules are broken down releases energy

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Anabolism
Anabolism provides the substances needed for cellular growth and repair Dehydration synthesis type of anabolic process used to make polysaccharides, triglycerides, and proteins produces water

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Anabolism

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Catabolism
Catabolism breaks down larger molecules into smaller ones Hydrolysis a catabolic process used to decompose carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins water is used reverse of dehydration synthesis

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Catabolism

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Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes

Cellular reactions are usually part of a
metabolic pathway, a series of linked reactions, illustrated as follows: E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 A B C D E F G Here, the letters A-F are reactants or substrates, B-G are the products in the various reactions, and E1-E6 are enzymes.

 An enzyme is a protein molecule that

functions as an organic catalyst to speed a chemical reaction. An enzyme brings together particular molecules and causes them to react. The reactants in an enzymatic reaction are called the substrates for that enzyme.

Energy of Activation
The energy that must be added to cause
molecules to react with one another is called the energy of activation (Ea). The addition of an enzyme does not change the free energy of the reaction, rather an enzyme lowers the energy of activation.

Energy of activation (Ea)

Enzyme-Substrate Complexes
Every reaction in a cell requires a specific
enzyme. Enzymes are named for their substrates: Substrate Enzyme Lipid Lipase Urea Urease Maltose Maltase Ribonucleic acid Ribonuclease

 Only one small part of an enzyme, called the

active site, complexes with the substrate(s). The active site may undergo a slight change in shape, called induced fit, in order to accommodate the substrate(s). The enzyme and substrate form an enzymesubstrate complex during the reaction. The enzyme is not changed by the reaction, and it is free to act again.

Control of Metabolic Reactions

Enzymes control rates of metabolic reactions lower activation energy needed to start reactions globular proteins with specific shapes not consumed in chemical reactions substrate specific shape of active site determines substrate

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Control of Metabolic Reactions

Metabolic pathways
series of enzyme-controlled reactions leading to formation of a product each new substrate is the product of the previous reaction

Enzyme names commonly reflect the substrate have the suffix ase sucrase, lactase, protease, lipase

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Control of Metabolic Reactions

Cofactors make some enzymes active ions or coenzymes Factors that alter enzymes heat radiation electricity chemicals changes in pH Coenzymes organic molecules that act as cofactors vitamins

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Energy for Metabolic Reactions

Energy ability to do work or change something heat, light, sound, electricity, mechanical energy, chemical energy changed from one form to another involved in all metabolic reactions Release of chemical energy most metabolic processes depend on chemical energy oxidation of glucose generates chemical energy cellular respiration releases chemical energy from molecules and makes it available for cellular use

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Enzymatic reaction

Induced fit model

Factors Affecting Enzymatic Speed

Enzymatic reactions proceed with great
speed provided there is enough substrate to fill active sites most of the time. Enzyme activity increases as substrate concentration increases because there are more collisions between substrate molecules and the enzyme.

Temperature and pH
As the temperature rises, enzyme activity
increases because more collisions occur between enzyme and substrate. If the temperature is too high, enzyme activity levels out and then declines rapidly because the enzyme is denatured. Each enzyme has an optimal pH at which the rate of reaction is highest.

Rate of an enzymatic reaction as a function of temperature and pH

 A cell regulates which enzymes are

present or active at any one time. Genes must be turned on or off to regulate the quantity of enzyme present. Another way to control enzyme activity is to activate or deactivate the enzyme. Phosphorylation is one way to activate an enzyme.

Enzyme Inhibition
Enzyme inhibition occurs when an active
enzyme is prevented from combining with its substrate. When the product of a metabolic pathway is in abundance, it binds competitively with the enzymes active site, a simple form of feedback inhibition. Other metabolic pathways are regulated by the end product binding to an allosteric site on the enzyme.

Feedback inhibition

Enzyme Cofactors
Presence of enzyme cofactors may be
necessary for some enzymes to carry out their functions. Inorganic metal ions, such as copper, zinc, or iron function as cofactors for certain enzymes. Organic molecules, termed coenzymes, must be present for other enzymes to function. Some coenzymes are vitamins.

Oxidation-Reduction and the Flow of Energy

Oxidation is the loss of electrons and
reduction is the gain of electrons. Because oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously in a reaction, such a reaction is called a redox reaction. Oxidation also refers to the loss of hydrogen atoms, and reduction refers to the gain of hydrogen atoms in covalent reactions in cells.

 These types of oxidation-reduction, or

redox, reactions are exemplified by the overall reactions of photosynthesis and cellular respiration. The two pathways of photosynthesis and cellular respiration permit the flow of energy from the sun though all living things.

Cellular Respiration
The overall equation for cellular respiration
is opposite that of photosynthesis: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy In this reaction, glucose is oxidized and oxygen is reduced to become water. The complete oxidation of a mol of glucose releases 686 kcal of energy that is used to synthesize ATP.

Chapter Summary
Two laws of thermodynamics state that
energy cannot be created or destroyed, and energy transformations result in a loss of energy, usually as heat. As a result of these laws, we know the entropy of the universe is ever increasing, and that it takes energy to maintain the organization of living things.

 Metabolism refers to all the chemical

reactions in the cell. Only reactions with a negative free energy occur spontaneously. Endergonic reactions are thus coupled with exergonic reactions. Energy is stored in cells in ATP molecules. Metabolic pathways are a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.

 Each reaction requires a specific enzyme. Substrate concentration, temperature, pH, and

enzyme concentration affect the rates of reactions. Most metabolic pathways are regulated by feedback inhibition. Cellular respiration involves oxidation-reduction reactions and accounts for the flow of energy through all living things.

Cellular Respiration
Occurs in three series of reactions 1. Glycolysis 2. Citric acid cycle 3. Electron transport chain Produces carbon dioxide water ATP (chemical energy) heat Includes anaerobic reactions (without O2) - produce little ATP aerobic reactions (requires O2) - produce most ATP

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Overview of Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is the step-wise
release of energy from carbohydrates and other molecules; energy from these reactions is used to synthesize ATP molecules. This is an aerobic process that requires oxygen (O2) and gives off carbon dioxide (CO2), and involves the complete breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide and water.

 The oxidation of glucose is an exergonic

reaction (releases energy) which drives ATP synthesis, which is an endergonic reaction (energy is required). The overall equation for cellular respiration shows the coupling of glucose breakdown to ATP buildup. The breakdown of one glucose molecule results in a maximum of 36 to 38 ATP molecules, representing about 40% of the potential energy within the glucose molecule.

ATP Molecules
each ATP molecule has three parts:
an adenine molecule a ribose molecule three phosphate molecules in a chain third phosphate attached by high-energy bond when the bond is broken, energy is transferred when the bond is broken, ATP becomes ADP ADP becomes ATP through phosphorylation phosphorylation requires energy released from cellular respiration

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Cellular respiration

Phases of Complete Glucose Breakdown

The oxidation of glucose by removal of
hydrogen atoms involves four phases: Glycolysis the breakdown of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate in the cytoplasm with no oxygen needed; yields 2 ATP Transition reaction pyruvate is oxidized to a 2-carbon acetyl group carried by CoA, and CO2 is removed; occurs twice per glucose molecule

 Citric acid cycle a cyclical series of oxidation

reactions that give off CO2 and produce one ATP per cycle; occurs twice per glucose molecule Electron transport system a series of carriers that accept electrons removed from glucose and pass them from one carrier to the next until the final receptor, O2 is reached; water is produced; energy is released and used to synthesize 32 to 34 ATP If oxygen is not available, fermentation occurs in the cytoplasm instead of proceeding to cellular respiration.

Outside the Mitochondria: Glycolysis

Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and is
the breakdown of glucose to two pyruvate molecules. Glycolysis is universally found in all organisms and likely evolved before the citric acid cycle and electron transport system. Glycolysis does not require oxygen.

Glycolysis
series of ten reactions breaks down glucose into 2 pyruvic acids occurs in cytosol anaerobic phase of cellular respiration yields two ATP molecules per glucose Summarized by three main events 1. phosphorylation 2. splitting 3. production of NADH and ATP
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Energy-Investment Steps
As glycolysis begins, two ATP are used to
activate glucose, a 6-carbon molecule that splits into two C3 molecules known as PGAL. PGAL carries a phosphate group from ATP. From this point on, each C3 molecule undergoes the same series of reactions.

Glycolysis
Event 1 - Phosphorylation two phosphates added to glucose requires ATP Event 2 Splitting (cleavage) 6-carbon glucose split into two 3-carbon molecules
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Energy-Harvesting Steps
Oxidation of PGAL now occurs by the
removal of electrons that are accompanied by hydrogen ions, both picked up by the coenzyme NAD+: 2 NAD+ + 4H 2 NADH + 2 H+ The oxidation of PGAL and subsequent substrates results in four high-energy phosphate groups used to synthesize ATP in substrate-level phosphorylation.

Glycolysis
Event 3 Production of NADH and ATP hydrogen atoms are released hydrogen atoms bind to NAD+ to produce NADH NADH delivers hydrogen atoms to electron transport chain if oxygen is available ADP is phosphorylated to become ATP two molecules of pyruvic acid are produced
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Glycolysis Summary
Inputs: Glucose 2 NAD+ 2 ATP 4 ADP + 2 P Outputs: 2 pyruvate 2 NADH 2 ADP 2 ATP (net gain)

Anaerobic Reactions
If oxygen is not available electron transport chain cannot accept NADH pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid glycolysis is inhibited ATP production declines
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Aerobic Reactions
If oxygen is available pyruvic acid is used to produce acetyl CoA citric acid cycle begins electron transport chain functions carbon dioxide and water are formed 36 molecules of ATP produced per glucose molecule
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Inside the Mitochondria

A mitochondrion is a cellular organelle that has a double
membrane, with an intermembrane space between the two layers. Cristae are folds of inner membrane that jut out into the matrix, the innermost compartment, which is filled with a gel-like fluid. The transition reaction and citic acid cycle occur in the matrix; the electron transport system is located in the cristae.

Transition Reaction
The transition reaction connects glycolysis to the
citric acid cycle, and is thus the transition between these two pathways. Pyruvate is converted to a C2 acetyl group attached to coenzyme A (CoA), and CO2 is released. During this oxidation reaction, NAD+ is converted to NADH + H+; the transition reaction occurs twice per glucose molecule.

Citric Acid Cycle

The citric acid cycle is a cyclical metabolic
pathway located in the matrix of the mitochondria. At the start of the citric acid cycle, CoA carries the C2 acetyl group to join a C4 molecule, and C6 citrate results. Each acetyl group received from the transition reaction is oxidized to 2 CO2 molecules.

 During the cycle, oxidation occurs when NAD+

accepts electrons in three sites and FAD accepts electrons once. Substrate-level phosphorylation results in a gain of one ATP per every turn of the cycle; it turns twice per glucose. During the citric acid cycle, the six carbon atoms in glucose become CO2. citric acid cycle produces four CO2 per molecule of

The transition reaction produces two CO2, and the

Citric Acid Cycle

begins when acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetic acid to produce citric acid citric acid is changed into oxaloacetic acid through a series of reactions cycle repeats as long as pyruvic acid and oxygen are available for each citric acid molecule: one ATP is produced eight hydrogen atoms are transferred to NAD+ and FAD two CO2 produced

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Citric acid cycle

Citric acid cycle inputs and outputs per glucose molecule

Inputs: 2 acetyl groups 6 NAD+ 2 FAD 2 ADP + 2 P Outputs: 4 CO2 6 NADH 2 FADH2 2 ATP

Electron Transport System

The electron transport system located in the
cristae of mitochondria is a series of protein carriers, that pass electrons from one to the other. Electrons carried by NADH and FADH2 enter the electron transport system. As a pair of electrons is passed from carrier to carrier, energy is released and is used to form ATP molecules by oxidative phosphorylation.

 Oxygen receives energy-spent electrons at

the end of the electron transport system. Next, oxygen combines with hydrogen, and water forms: O2 + 2 e- + 2 H+ H2O When NADH carries electrons to the first carrier, enough energy is released by the time electrons are accepted by O2 to produce three ATP; two ATP are produced when FADH2 delivers electrons to the carriers.

Overview of the electron transport system

Organization of Cristae
The electron transport system is located in the
cristae of the mitochondria and consists of three protein complexes and two mobile carriers. The mobile carriers transport electrons between the complexes, which also contain electron carriers. The carriers use the energy released by electrons as they move down the carriers to pump H+ from the matrix into the intermembrane space of the mitochondrion.

 A very strong electrochemical gradient is

established with few H+ in the matrix and many in the intermembrane space. The cristae also contain an ATP synthase complex through which hydrogen ions flow down their gradient from the intermembrane space into the matrix. The flow of three H+ through an ATP synthase complex causes a conformational change, which causes the ATP synthase to synthesize ATP from ADP + P.

 Mitochondria produce ATP by

chemiosmosis, so called because ATP production is tied to an electrochemical gradient, namely an H+ gradient. Once formed, ATP molecules are transported out of the mitochondrial matrix.

Organization of cristae

Electron Transport Chain

NADH and FADH2 carry electrons to the ETC ETC series of electron carriers located in cristae of mitochondria energy from electrons transferred to ATP synthase ATP synthase catalyzes the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP water is formed

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Energy Yield from Glucose Metabolism

Per glucose molecule, there is a net gain
of two ATP from glycolysis, which occurs in the cytoplasm by substrate-level phosphorylation. The citric acid cycle, occurring in the matrix of mitochondria, adds two more ATP, also by substrate-level phosphorylation.

 Most ATP is produced by the electron

transport system and chemiosmosis. Per glucose molecule, ten NADH and two FADH2 take electrons to the electron transport system; three ATP are formed per NADH and two ATP per FADH2.

Electrons carried by NADH produced during

glycolysis are shuttled to the electron transport chain by an organic molecule.

Accounting of energy yield per glucose molecule breakdown

Summary of Cellular Respiration

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Summary of Catabolism of Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Fats

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Carbohydrate Storage
Excess glucose stored as glycogen (primarily by liver and muscle cells) fat converted to amino acids

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Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

Genetic information instructs cells how to construct proteins; stored in DNA Gene segment of DNA that codes for one protein Genome complete set of genes Genetic Code method used to translate a sequence of nucleotides of DNA into a sequence of amino acids

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DNA Structure and Replication

In the mid-1900s, scientists knew that
chromosomes, made up of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and proteins, contained genetic information. However, they did not know whether the DNA or the proteins was the actual genetic material.

Structure of DNA
The structure of DNA was determined by James
Watson and Francis Crick in the early 1950s. DNA is a polynucleotide; nucleotides are composed of a phosphate, a sugar, and a nitrogen-containing base. DNA has the sugar deoxyribose and four different bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).

One pair of bases

 Watson and Crick showed that DNA is a

double helix in which A is paired with T and G is paired with C. This is called complementary base pairing because a purine is always paired with a pyrimidine.

 When the DNA double helix unwinds, it

resembles a ladder. The sides of the ladder are the sugarphosphate backbones, and the rungs of the ladder are the complementary paired bases. The two DNA strands are anti-parallel they run in opposite directions.

DNA double helix

Replication of DNA
DNA replication occurs during chromosome
duplication; an exact copy of the DNA is produced with the aid of DNA polymerase. Hydrogen bonds between bases break and enzymes unzip the molecule. Each old strand of nucleotides serves as a template for each new strand.

 New nucleotides move into

complementary positions are joined by DNA polymerase. The process is semiconservative because each new double helix is composed of an old strand of nucleotides from the parent molecule and one newly-formed strand. Some cancer treatments are aimed at stopping DNA replication in rapidlydividing cancer cells.

Ladder configuration and DNA replication

Gene Expression
A gene is a segment of DNA that specifies
the amino acid sequence of a protein. Gene expression occurs when gene activity leads to a protein product in the cell. A gene does not directly control protein synthesis; instead, it passes its genetic information on to RNA, which is more directly involved in protein synthesis.

RNA
RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a singlestranded nucleic acid in which A pairs with U (uracil) while G pairs with C. Three types of RNA are involved in gene expression: messenger RNA (mRNA) carries genetic information to the ribosomes, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is found in the ribosomes, and transfer RNA (tRNA) transfers amino acids to the ribosomes, where the protein product is synthesized.

Structure of RNA

 Two processes are involved in the

synthesis of proteins in the cell: Transcription makes an RNA molecule complementary to a portion of DNA. Translation occurs when the sequence of bases of mRNA directs the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide.

The Genetic Code

DNA specifies the synthesis of proteins
because it contains a triplet code: every three bases stand for one amino acid. Each three-letter unit of an mRNA molecule is called a codon. Most amino acids have more than one codon; there are 20 amino acids with a possible 64 different triplets. The code is nearly universal among living organisms.

Messenger RNA codons

Central Concept
The central concept of genetics involves
the DNA-to-protein sequence involving transcription and translation. DNA has a sequence of bases that is transcribed into a sequence of bases in mRNA. Every three bases is a codon that stands for a particular amino acid.

Transcription
During transcription in the nucleus, a
segment of DNA unwinds and unzips, and the DNA serves as a template for mRNA formation. RNA polymerase joins the RNA nucleotides so that the codons in mRNA are complementary to the triplet code in DNA.

Transcription and mRNA synthesis

Processing of mRNA
DNA contains exons and introns. Before mRNA leaves the nucleus, it is

processed and the introns are excised so that only the exons are expressed. The splicing of mRNA is done by ribozymes, organic catalysts composed of RNA, not protein. Primary mRNA is processed into mature mRNA.

Function of introns

Translation
Translation is the second step by which
gene expression leads to protein synthesis. During translation, the sequence of codons in mRNA specifies the order of amino acids in a protein. Translation requires several enzymes and two other types of RNA: transfer RNA and ribosomal RNA.

Transfer RNA
During translation, transfer RNA (tRNA)
molecules attach to their own particular amino acid and travel to a ribosome. Through complementary base pairing between anticodons of tRNA and codons of mRNA, the sequence of tRNAs and their amino acids form the sequence of the polypeptide.

Transfer RNA: amino acid carrier

Ribosomal RNA
Ribosomal RNA, also called structural
RNA, is made in the nucleolus. Proteins made in the cytoplasm move into the nucleus and join with ribosomal RNA to form the subunits of ribosomes. A large subunit and small subunit of a ribosome leave the nucleus and join in the cytoplasm to form a ribosome just prior to protein synthesis.

 A ribosome has a binding site for mRNA as well as

binding sites for two tRNA molecules at a time. As the ribosome moves down the mRNA molecule, new tRNAs arrive, and a polypeptide forms and grows longer. Translation terminates once the polypeptide is fully formed; the ribosome separates into two subunits and falls off the mRNA. Several ribosomes may attach and translate the same mRNA, therefore the name polyribosome.

Polyribosome structure and function

Translation Requires Three Steps

During translation, the codons of an 1) 2) 3) 4)
mRNA base-pair with tRNA anticodons. Protein translation requires these steps: Chain initiation Chain elongation Chain termination. Enzymes are required for each step, and the first two steps require energy.

Chain Initiation
During chain initiation, a small ribosomal
subunit, the mRNA, an initiator tRNA, and a large ribosomal unit bind together. First, a small ribosomal subunit attaches to the mRNA near the start codon. The anticodon of tRNA, called the initiator RNA, pairs with this codon. Then the large ribosomal subunit joins.

Initiation

Chain Elongation
During chain elongation, the initiator tRNA
passes its amino acid to a tRNA-amino acid complex that has come to the second binding site. The ribosome moves forward and the tRNA at the second binding site is now at the first site, a sequence called translocation. The previous tRNA leaves the ribosome and picks up another amino acid before returning.

Elongation

Chain Termination
Chain termination occurs when a stopcodon sequence is reached. The polypeptide is enzymatically cleaved from the last tRNA by a release factor, and the ribosome falls away from the mRNA molecule. A newly synthesized polypeptide may function along or become part of a protein.

Termination

Review of Gene Expression

DNA in the nucleus contains a triplet code;
each group of three bases stands for one amino acid. During transcription, an mRNA copy of the DNA template is made. The mRNA is processed before leaving the nucleus. The mRNA joins with a ribosome, where tRNA carries the amino acids into position during translation.

Gene Mutations
A gene mutation is a change in the
sequence of bases within a gene.

Frameshift Mutations
Frameshift mutations involve the addition
or removal of a base during the formation of mRNA; these change the genetic message by shifting the reading frame.

Point Mutations
The change of just one nucleotide causing
a codon change can cause the wrong amino acid to be inserted in a polypeptide; this is a point mutation. In a silent mutation, the change in the codon results in the same amino acid.

 If a codon is changed to a stop codon, the

resulting protein may be too short to function; this is a nonsense mutation. If a point mutation involves the substitution of a different amino acid, the result may be a protein that cannot reach its final shape; this is a missense mutation. An example is Hbs which causes sicklecell disease.

Sickle-cell disease in humans

Cause and Repair of Mutations

Mutations can be spontaneous or caused by
environmental influences called mutagens. Mutagens include radiation (X-rays, UV radiation), and organic chemicals (in cigarette smoke and pesticides). DNA polymerase proof reads the new strand against the old strand and detects mismatched pairs, reducing mistakes to one in a billion nucleotide pairs replicated.

Transposons: Jumping Genes

Transposons are specific DNA sequences
that move from place to place within and between chromosomes. These so-called jumping genes can cause a mutation to occur by altering gene expression. It is likely all organisms, including humans, have transposons.

Cancer: A Failure of Genetic Control

Cancer is a genetic disorder resulting in a tumor,
an abnormal mass of cells. Carcinogenesis, the development of cancer, is a gradual process. Cancer cells lack differentiation, form tumors, undergo angiogenesis and metastasize. Cancer cells fail to undergo apoptosis, or programmed cell death.

Structure of DNA
two polynucleotide chains hydrogen bonds hold nitrogenous bases together bases pair specifically (A-T and C-G) forms a helix DNA wrapped about histones forms chromosomes

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RNA Molecules
Messenger RNA (mRNA) delivers genetic information
from nucleus to the cytoplasm single polynucleotide chain formed beside a strand of DNA RNA nucleotides are complementary to DNA nucleotides (exception no thymine in RNA; replaced with uracil) making of mRNA is transcription
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RNA Molecules
Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries amino acids to mRNA carries anticodon to mRNA translates a codon of mRNA into an amino acid Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) provides structure and enzyme activity for ribosomes

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Protein Synthesis

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Protein Synthesis

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DNA Replication
hydrogen bonds break between bases double strands unwind and pull apart new nucleotides pair with exposed bases controlled by DNA polymerase

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Mutations
Mutations change in genetic information Result when extra bases are added or deleted bases are changed May or may not change the protein Repair enzymes correct mutations

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Clinical Application
Phenylketonuria PKU
enzyme that breaks down the amino acid phenylalanine is missing build up of phenylalanine causes mental retardation treated by diets very low in phenylalanine

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