History of Manned Spaceflight

Where Does Space Start?

The Federation Aeronautique Internationale has established the Krmn line at an altitude of 100 kilometers.
Theodore von Krmn calculated at100 km a vehicle would have to travel faster than orbital velocity in order to derive sufficient aerodynamic lift from the atmosphere to support itself.

The United States designates people who travel above an altitude of 50 miles (80 km) as astronauts.

NASA's mission control uses 76 miles (122 km) as their re-entry altitude, which roughly marks the boundary where atmospheric drag becomes noticeable.

Sputnik
First artificial satellite put into Earth orbit. Launched by Soviet Union on October 4, 1957 About twice the size of a basketball. Measured density of upper atmosphere. Broadcast simple radio signal.
The first recording was made by RCA engineers in Riverhead.

US Reaction Space Race

Cold War: 1947 1991
Conflict between the USSR and the US
Political, Military, Economic, Technological!

Everything seen as a competition between communism and capitalism.

Soviet victory in this leg of the Space Race embarrassing to US.

Technological victory for USSR.

National Defense Education Act 1958

Provided funding for science and mathematics education. Provided money to college students studying science and mathematics.

US Reaction National Defense

Sputnik launched by an R-7 rocket. First Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) Originally designed to carry nuclear warheads up to 8000 km.
Roughly the distance between Moscow and Washington, DC

Fear of nuclear war intensified.

Animals in Space
1949 Rhesus Monkey, Albert II, first monkey in space. Parachute failed, died on impact. (US) 1951 Dogs Tsygan and Dezik sent into space, not orbit. First animals recovered alive. (USSR) 1957 Dog Laika is the first living creature to orbit the earth. Died during flight due to stress and heat. (USSR)

Animals in Space
1959 Monkeys Able and Baker become first monkeys to survive spaceflight. (US)
Able died shortly after mission, Baker lived until 1984 at the US Space and Rocket Center.

1960 Dogs Belka and Strelka orbit the earth and are returned safely. (USSR)

Yuri Gagarin
First human in space and first human to orbit the Earth. Soviet Vostok 1 mission.
April 12, 1961 1 hour 48 minutes Ejected from his spacecraft, as planned, at altitude of 7km.

Vostok 1 Launch

US Response
Kennedy's Address to Congress, May 25, 1961

Kennedy Speech, Rice University, September 12, 1962

Kennedy at meeting with NASA Administrator James E. Webb

US MANNED MISSIONS

Cape Canaveral
Home of Cape Canaveral Air Force Station and Kennedy Space Center. NASAs primary launch location.

Vehicle Assembly Building

Used to assemble and house manned launch vehicles from 1968 to 2011. One of the largest buildings in the world.
Largest single story building in the world.

Largest doors in the world (139 meters tall)

As tall as the Great Pyramid at Giza

Flag
Each star 6 feet across Blue field is the size of a regulation basketball court. Each stripe is the width of a standard road lane.

Mercury
1959-1963 20 unmanned launches 6 manned launches
2 suborbital 4 orbital

Named for Roman god Mercury, associated with speed.

Goals:
To orbit a manned spacecraft around the earth To investigate the pilots ability to function in space To recover both the pilot and spacecraft safely

Launch Vehicles
Mercury Redstone Launch Vehicle SM-65 Atlas Launch System Both originally designed for the delivery of nuclear warheads.

Mercury Capsule

Unmanned Missions
Test of launch escape system 4 times Test of Heat shield Test of Atlas/spacecraft interface Test of Aerodynamics Test of Abort system Test of Tracking Network

Notable Mercury Missions

Mercury Redstone 2 January 31, 1961
Ham the Chimp First time crew performed tasks in space. (not just along for the ride)

Mercury 7

Left to Right: Grissom, Shepard, Carpenter, Schirra, Slayton, Glenn, Cooper

Notable Mercury Missions

Mercury Atlas 5
Enos the chimp makes 2 orbits of the Earth

Freedom 7 Mercury Redstone 3

May 5, 1961 Alan Shepard First American in space 15 min 22 sec Max altitude: 116 miles.

Freedom 7 Trajectory

Notable Mercury Missions

Friendship 7 Mercury Atlas 6
February 20, 1962 John Glenn First American to orbit the Earth 3 orbits in 5 hours

Faith 7
May 15, 1963 Gordon Cooper First American to spend a full day in space. Last American to orbit the Earth solo.

Gemini Program
1964-1966 2 unmanned launches 10 manned launches Gemini in Latin means twins or side-by-side.
Gemini spacecraft carries two crewmen.

Goals:
To send humans into space for the extended period (814 days) required for a Moon landing. To rendezvous and dock with another vehicle. To perform Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA). To provide astronauts with experience required for Apollo.

Gemini Launch Vehicle and Spacecraft

Titan II
Based on the Titan II Intercontinental Ballistic Missile.

Gemini Spacecraft

Notable Gemini Missions

Gemini IV
James McDivitt & Ed White June 3-7, 1965 First extravehicular activity by an American.

Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA)

Space Walk
White floated, tethered, 15 feet away from the capsule and performed experiments with the Hand-Held Maneuvering Unit. White spent 20 minutes floating freely in space. White had to be coaxed back into the capsule by McDivitt. Upon reentry of the spacecraft White remarked, This is the saddest moment of my life.

Notable Gemini Missions

Gemini V
Gordon Cooper & Pete Conrad August 21-29, 1965 First week long flight

Gemini VI & VII

Schirra/Stafford & Borman/Lovell First successful space rendezvous
Rendezvous: two spacecraft arrive at same orbit and approach to a very close distance.

Notable Gemini Missions

Gemini VIII
Neil Armstrong & David Scott March 16, 1966 First docking with another space vehicle
Agena Target vehicle

Apollo
1966-1972 6 unmanned launches 12 manned launches 6 moon landings

Named for Greek god of light and music by NASA manager Abe Silverstein. Goals:
To land men on the moon and return them safely to Earth

Apollo Spacecraft
Launch Vehicle: Saturn V Rocket
Tallest, heaviest, most powerful rocket ever.

Rockets

Command/Service Module (CSM)

Command Module: a cabin which housed a crew of three and equipment needed for reentry and splashdown. Service Module: provided propulsion, electrical power and storage for consumables required during a mission.

Lunar Excursion Module (LEM)

Lander portion of Apollo spacecraft Carried crew of two to the lunar surface

Apollo 1
First manned mission of the Apollo program. Crew: Gus Grissom, Ed White, Roger Chaffee Slated for launch: February 21, 1967 During a launch pad test, January 27, a cabin fire killed all three crew members.

Fire
Ignition source never conclusively identified.
Investigators found a copper wire without its insulation. This wire ran near a junction in an ethylene glycol cooling line which was prone to leaks. The combination could cause an exothermic reaction.

Many types and classes of combustible material. Pure oxygen atmosphere

Later flights 60% Oxygen 40% Nitrogen

Hatch opened inward, and could not be operated until the cabin had been vented.
Later capsules had hatches that opened outward.

Apollo 8
A flight of many firsts.
First flight to leave earth orbit. First to be captured by and escape gravitational field of another body. First to return safely to Earth from another celestial body. First to see the Earth as a whole planet. First to see the dark side of the moon. First manned launch of a Saturn V rocket. First manned launch from Kennedy Space Center.

Apollo 8
Crew:
Commander: Frank Borman Command Module Pilot: Jim Lovell Lunar Module Pilot: William Anders

Launch date: December 21, 1968 3 days to travel to the moon 10 lunar orbits 3 days back to Earth

Earthrise

Taken on December 24, 1968 by the crew of Apollo 8. One of LIFEs 100 Photographs that Changed the World

Crawler-Transporters
Two tracked vehicles used to transport spacecraft from the VAB to the Launch Complex. Weighs 3000 tons Burns 125.7 gallons of diesel fuel per mile. Maximum speed 1 mph. Named Hans and Franz.

Apollo 10
Dress Rehearsal for lunar landing. Crew:
Commander: Thomas Stafford Command Module Pilot: John Young Lunar Module Pilot: Eugene Cernan

Launched May 18, 1969 Command Module: Charlie Brown Lunar Module: Snoopy

Descent Toward Lunar Surface

Stafford and Cernan in LEM descended toward the lunar surface and made measurements of moons gravitational field.
Allow for safe landing for Apollo 11 crew.

Descended to within 16 km of the lunar surface. Scouted the landing site of Apollo 11. Ascent module, which returns crew members to the CSM, was short fueled.
If they had landed they would not have had enough fuel to make it back to the CSM and ultimately the Earth.

Apollo 11
First landing of humans on the moon. Crew:
Commander: Neil Armstrong Command Module Pilot: Michael Collins Lunar Module Pilot: Buzz Aldrin

Launched July 16, 1969 Command Module: Columbia Lunar Module: Eagle

Moon Landing
July 20, 1969 Sea of Tranquility Six and half hours after landing Armstrong took the first steps on the moon. Astronauts receive call from President Nixon. Astronauts collect sample of moon rock and dust.

Return Home
After 21.5 hours on the surface of the Moon, Armstrong and Aldrin lift off the moon and return to Michael Collins and the Columbia.

July 24, 1969 Columbia splashes down in the Pacific. Crew placed in mobile quarantine aboard the USS Hornet for 21 days.

Apollo 13
NASAs successful failure April 11, 1970 Crew:
Commander: Jim Lovell Command Module Pilot: Jack Swigert Lunar Module Pilot: Fred Haise

Command Module: Odyssey Lunar Module: Aquarius

Incident
200,000 miles from the Earth the number 2 oxygen tank exploded. Command Module left with limited duration battery power. Crew forced to use the LEM as a lifeboat. Plenty of oxygen in LEM, limited electricity.
LEM forced to power down as much as possible.

Carbon dioxide filters not suited to handle 3 people for 4 days.

Engineers at mission control improvised a way to connect the cube-shaped CSM filters to the cylindrical LEM sockets.

Apollo 13 Path

Safe Return
April 17, 1970 South Pacific Ocean USS Iwo Jima

Apollo 15
First use of lunar rover.

Apollo 17
Mission of lasts and longests.

Last manned mission beyond low earth orbit. Last humans to set foot on celestial body.
Longest manned lunar landing flight. Longest lunar EVAs Longest time in lunar orbit
Eugene Cernan, last man on the moon.

Skylab
First space station of the US. Launched May 14, 1973
Launch vehicle: Saturn V rocket (last flight)

Goals:
To provide a long term (1-3 months) habitat in space to prove that humans could live and work in space for extended periods To expand our knowledge of solar astronomy

Comfortable Space Habitation

Earlier spacecraft were very small and used for short periods of time. Astronauts would live on Skylab for months at a time. Each astronaut had private sleeping area, sleeping bag, and locker. Station included a shower and a toilet. Food was improved for Skylab astronauts.
Skylab had a refrigerator and a freezer.

Skylab Missions
Crews of three were ferried to Skylab in Apollo CSMs atop a Saturn IB rocket.

Skylab 2
Replaced damaged sun shield and repaired damage Skylab sustained during launch. Spent 28 days in space.

Skylab 3
Performed experiments designed by high school students. Spent 59 days in space.

 Skylab 4

Skylab Missions

All rookie crew. Inadvertently(?) photographed Area 51. Spent 84 days in space.

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project

In the 70s the Americans and Soviets were attempting cooperate with each other more. The rendezvous and docking of Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft would be a symbolic gesture.

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project

Docked July 17, 1975 3 American astronauts 2 Soviet cosmonauts Upon separation, the Apollo craft created a solar eclipse for the Soviets so they could photograph the suns corona.

Preparing for Spaceflight - Microgravity

There is gravity in space
Fg = (Gm1m2/r2)
r distance from the center of the earth. r only increases about 5% The force of gravity only decreases about 9%

If there was no gravity, spacecraft wouldnt orbit they would fly off into space.

Astronauts experience weightlessness because they are in freefall.

Constantly falling around the earth. Like going over a hill on a rollercoaster.

Preparing for Spaceflight - Microgravity

In order to experience weightlessness, astronauts train in airplanes flying parabolic paths.

NASAs plane unofficially dubbed Vomit Comet.

Two thirds of passengers become ill.

Zero G

Space Shuttle
1972 President Nixon announced that NASA would pursue the development of the space shuttle. Goals:
Create a reusable spacecraft. Launch as many as 50 missions per year. Drive down per-mission costs.

Concept Space Shuttles

Space Transportation System

STS composed of three main parts
External Fuel Tank Orbiter Solid Rocket Boosters

Orbiter
Carries crew and payload into Low Earth Orbit. Used to perform in-orbit operations. Re-enters the atmosphere, returning the crew to earth as a glider.

Orbiter
Crew: 6-8 (2 minimum)
Commander Pilot Mission Specialists Payload Specialists Passengers to/from space station

Maximum payload: 55,250 pounds 3 main engines: provide lift and steer shuttle
1.2 million pounds (5 million newtons) of thrust total

External Fuel Tank

Carries liquid hydrogen fuel and liquid oxygen oxidizer required by shuttle main engines. Jettisoned at altitude of 70 miles. Breaks up in atmosphere, remaining pieces land in ocean. Structural backbone of STS.
Tank connects to orbiter. Solid rocket boosters connect to tank.

External Fuel Tank

Evolution of fuel tank:

Standard Weight Tank, STS-1 to STS-5, 35000 kg Lightweight Tank, STS-6 to STS-90, 30000kg Super Lightweight Tank, STS-91 to STS-135, 26500kg

Fuel tank of STS-1 and 2 painted white to protect against UV light.

Determined to be unnecessary. Future tanks unpainted, saving 600 lbs.

Solid Rocket Boosters

Pair of large solid rockets. Provide 83% of thrust for liftoff.
6.2 million pounds (27.6 million newtons)

Jettisoned after 2 minutes Parachutes deployed and boosters recovered. Refurbished and reused many times.

Shuttle Mission Profile

Shuttle Launch STS-129 (skip to 9:00)

Orbiters
Enterprise 1st Orbiter (1977)
Never intended for spaceflight. Performed flight tests in the atmosphere. Lacked engines and heat shield.

Conducted approach and landing tests (ALTs) Carried to altitude by Boeing Shuttle Carrier. Will be on display at Intrepid Sea, Air, & Space Museum in NYC.

Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft

Used to ferry orbiters from landing sites to Kennedy Space Center. Heavily modified to support 200,000 lb orbiter.

Orbiters
Columbia 1st spaceworthy orbiter. First Launched on STS-1, April 12, 1982. Completed 27 missions.

Orbiters
Challenger 2nd orbiter First launched on STS-6, April 4, 1983 Completed 9 missions.

Orbiters
Discovery 3rd Orbiter First launched on STS-41D, August 30, 1984 Completed 39 missions.

Orbiters
Atlantis 4th Orbiter First launched on STS-51J, October 3, 1985 Completed 33 missions

Challenger Disaster
STS 51-L January 28, 1986 73 seconds after launch O-ring in SRB failed
Leads to disintegration

All seven crew members died.

Challenger Disaster
Teacher in Space Program (TISP)
To inspire students, honor teachers, and spur interest in mathematics, science, and space exploration.

STS-51-L is the first TISP mission.

First (only) participant Christa McAuliffe Her backup, Barbara Morgan, left teaching and became a full time astronaut.
Flew on STS-118

Challenger Disaster
Unusually cold weather
18 degrees overnight Temp. in the low 30 during launch

SRB has three sections

Rubber O-rings at joints contain hot, high pressure gas produced by burning rocket fuel. Gas expelled from end of rocket to provide thrust

In cold temperature, rubber contracts, damaging seal.

Challenger Disaster
When the SRBs ignited, the O-rings didnt form a good seal, and escaping gas damaged the struts that attached the SRB to the fuel tank. Around T+73s the right SRB pulled away from the strut and rotated, striking the external fuel tank. The trajectory of the shuttle was altered, and it was subjected to fatal aerodynamic forces, causing it to break apart. It is unknown how long the astronauts remained alive and conscious after the break up.

Aftermath of Challenger
Shuttle fleet grounded for almost three years
Investigations Hearings Redesign of SRBs

September 29, 1988

Discovery launched on STS-26

Scheduled launches of shuttles continued uninterrupted until 2003.

Orbiters
Endeavour 5th orbiter; replacement for Challenger First launched on STS-49, May 7, 1992 Completed 25 missions

 STS-112 February 1, 2003 Columbia disintegrates upon reentry into the Earths atmosphere. All seven crew members died.

Columbia Disaster

Columbia Disaster
About 82 seconds after launch a suitcase-sized piece of insulating foam broke off the external fuel tank. This piece of foam struck the leading edge of Columbias left wing, damaging the heat resistance panels. During re-entry, hot gases passed through the damaged panels and destroyed the internal structure of the wing. Vehicle quickly broke apart following this.

Aftermath of Columbia Disaster

Shuttle missions delayed for two years.

Later missions would include in-orbit inspection of thermal protection system. A designated rescue mission was at the ready for future shuttle flights. All future missions (with one exception) would be flown to International Space Station, which would be a safe haven in need be.

Accomplishments of Space Shuttle Program

Launched many satellites
Civilian & Military Hubble Space Telescope Chandra X-ray Observatory Compton Gamma Ray Observatory

Launched probes
Magellan to Venus Galileo to Jupiter

Five missions to repair/upgrade Hubble Assembly of International Space Station Transferred crew to/from Mir and ISS
Resupplied space stations

Numerous experiments conducted

Spacelab

Spacelab
Reusable laboratory carried on 22 Space Shuttle missions. Housed in shuttles cargo bay. Constructed by the European Space Agency. Habitable Module
Gave astronauts more space in which to perform experiments.

Pallets
Platforms used to mount experiments requiring exposure to the vacuum of space.

Could be assembled in different configurations for different missions.

Spacelab

Canadarm
Shuttle Remote Manipulator System Used to maneuver payload for deployment. Used to capture free-flying payload and return it to the payload bay. Developed by Canadian Space Agency Used on shuttles and ISS

International Space Station

Habitable artificial satellite. Constructed from 1998-2012 Continuously inhabited since November 2000 Expected to be in operation until at least 2020.

International Space Station

Combination of three space station projects: Russian Mir-2 American Freedom European Columbus Astronauts from 15 countries have be aboard the ISS

International Space Station

Experiments conducted scientific fields of:
Biology Human physiology Physics Astronomy Meteorology

Conducts tests of spacecraft systems that will be required for missions to the moon and Mars.

International Space Station

Assembly Sequence