by

CHANDRASEGARAN
MANIKANDAN
 OSI Seven-layer Model
Application A Application B

Application Application
Layer Layer

Presentation Presentation
Layer Layer

Session Session
Layer Layer

Transport Transport
Layer Communication Network Layer

Network Network Network Network

Layer Layer Layer Layer

Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link

Layer Layer Layer Layer

Physical Physical Physical Physical

Layer Layer Layer Layer

Electrical and/or Optical Signals

 Transport layer is the heart of the whole protocol hierarchy.

 It provides reliability.

 It provides cost effective data transport from the source to

destination.

 To perform these processes transport layer make use of the services

provided by the network layer.
 The hardware/software within the transport layer does the work is
called the transport entity.

 The transport entity can be located either in the kernel or in the

network interface card.

 There are two types of network services they are connection oriented
and connectionless

 Similarly there are two types of services they are connection oriented
and connectionless.

 Existence of transport layer makes it more reliable than the

underlying services.
 The layers that are above the transport layer are called transport
service provider.

 The layers that are below the transport layer are called transport
service user.

 This distinction of provider versus users has a considerable impact

on the design of the layers and puts the transport layer in the key
position.

 Transport layer is the layer where one computer connects with

another computer.
 Transport layer is capable of assembling packets in a sequence
and checking them for errors.

 Finally it passes them to the session layer.

 It ensures that message reaches the correct application.

 The basic protocols used with the TCP is sliding window protocol

 When a sender transmits a segment it also starts a timer.

 When the segment arrives at the destination the receiving entities sends
back a segment bearing an acknowledgment number equal to next
sequence number it experts it to receive.

 If the sender’s timer goes off before the acknowledgment is received the
sender transmits the segment again.

 This is known as sliding windowing protocol.

Other TCP protocols are:

 FTP – file transfer protocol

 Telnet - remote login
 SMTP - E-mail
 TFTP - trivial file transfer protocol
 Finger - look up information about a user
 HTTP - World Wide Web
 POP-3 – remote E-mail access
 NNTP - USENET news
 Important design issue that occurs in the data link and other layers
are that what to do with a sender that systematically wants to
transmit frames faster that the receiver can accept them.

 This can easily occur only when the sender is running on a fast
computer and the receiver is running on a slow machine.

 The sender keeps pumping frames out at a high rate until the
receiver is completely swamps out

 Even if the transmission is error free at a certain point the receiver

will simply be unable to handle the frames as they arrive and will
start to lose some. clearly something has to be done with this
 For this purpose two approaches are currently used they are:

1.feedback based flow control

2.rate based flow control

 the receiver sending back information to the sender giving it

permission to send more data is called feedback based flow control.

 The protocol has a in built mechanisms that limits the rate in which
the data must be transferred without using feedback is called as rate
based flow control.
 Normally data are transferred with the help of the ISO/OSI layers

 When it is transferred there is know any information about the data

whether they are transferred to the destination or not

 In order to avoid this the concept of acknowledgment was introduced.

 Acknowledgment is nothing but when a data is transferred from the

source to destination after the data has been transferred the receiver
should send a message that data has been safely received this is known a
acknowledgment

 If any damage happens to the data acknowledgment will not be received

and the data will be re transmitted
Protocols Used for
 Http – hypertext (HTML)
 Ftp - file transfer protocol
 File – local files
 News – newsgroups
 Mailto - sending E-mail
 Telnet - remote login
 The ftp protocol is used to access files by FTP, the internet file
transfer protocol.

 ftp has been around for more than two decades.

 The http protocol is the webs native language the one spoken by
web servers

 From the users point of view the web consists of a vast worldwide
collection of document or web pages often called pages for short

 Users can follow any link by clicking on it, this process can be
repeated indefinitely.

 The idea of having one page point to another ,now called hypertext.
 Current is a flow of electricity charge carries ,usually electrons or
electron-defined atoms.

 The common symbol used for current is I.

 The standard unit is the ampere its symbol is A.

 Physics consider current flow from relatively positive points to

relatively negative points.
 Electricity is a form of energy.

 Electricity is a flow of electrons.

 When the balancing force between protons and electrons is upset by

an outside force, an atom may gain or lose an electron. When
electrons are “lost” from an atom. The free movement of these
electrons constitute an electric current
 The potential difference is called voltage.

 Voltage is the difference of electric potential between two points of

an electrical or electronic circuit, expressed in volts

 Depending on the difference of electric potential it is called as extra

low voltage, low voltage, high voltage etc.,

 Voltage is measured in volts

 It is divided into two they are: 1. AC

2.DC
 IMPEDENCE:
 Impedance of a circuit is defined as the ratio of the voltage across
the element to the current across the element.

 It is denoted by Z

 Z = V/I
RESISTOR:
 It opposes the flow of electrons
 It is measured by ohms

CONDUCTOR:
 It conducts the current that is it allows the flow of electrons

INSULATOR:
 It does not conduct the current that is it does not allow the flow of
electrons
CAPACITOR:
 It is used for storage of current
 It is measured in farad
 Farad is represented as F

INDUCTOR:
 It opposes the change in flow of current
 It is measured in Henry
 Henry is represented by H
DIODE:
 Diode acts like a semi conductor device

 It can be either forward or reverse

 4 types of diode are: 1.PN diode

2.zener diode
3.light emitting diode (LED)
4.photo diode
 CABLING:

 When it comes to network design, one of the most important

decisions you’ll make is choosing and installing the right cable for
your network. Even if you hire professional cabling contractors, it is
important for you to know what they’re doing and what to look for
so that you can properly evaluate their work.

 Today, deciding on a particular type of cable isn’t as much a matter

of which cable will eventually become the standard as it is a matter
of what you need to do right now and for the next few years. Most of
today’s network installations generally use some type of unshielded
twisted-pair cabling, although some organizations are running fiber
directly to their desktop machines.
TYPES OF CABLES:
twisted pair

co-axial cable

fiber optics
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable:
 Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties:
 1. Shielded

 2. Unshielded.

 Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally

the best option for school networks

 The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire
to extremely high-speed cable.

 The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each
pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch
to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and
other electrical devices.
 Type Use

Category 1 Voice Only (Telephone Wire)

Category 2 Data to 4 Mbps (Local Talk)

Category 3 Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet)

Category 4 Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps Token Ring)

Category 5 Data to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)

 Unshielded twisted pair cable is the predominant cable used today
.
 Two conductors are coated with a plastic sheath then twisted around
each other. These pairs are then twisted around other pairs to make
a multi-pair cable.

 The twisting of the wires around each other helps to reduce

unwanted signals being induced into the wires.

 It is used for telephone wiring inside buildings, as telephone cables

which link customer houses and buildings to telephone switching
exchanges, and for implementing local area networks.
UTP has the advantages of

 a high installed base

 cheap to install
 easy to terminate

Its disadvantages are

 very noisy
 limited in distance
 suffers from interference
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

 A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and

electrical frequency interference

 But Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with

electrical interference; however, the extra shielding can make the
cables quite bulky.

 Shielded twisted pair is often used on networks using Token Ring

topology.
Coaxial Cable

 As you can see in this diagram, this cable is called coaxial

(or coax for short) because two conductors share a
Common Axis. A typical coaxial cable has the following
components:
 Center conductor. This conductor usually consists of a
fairly heavy, solid yet flexible wire; stranded wires can
also be used. Solid conductors are preferred for
permanent wiring, but stranded conductors make the
cable more flexible and easier to connect to equipment.
 Insulation layer: Also called a dielectric layer, this layer
provides electrical insulation and keeps the inner and outer
conductors in precise coaxial relationship.

 Outer conductor or shield: This layer shields the inner conductor

from outside electrical interference. The shield can consist of braided
wires, metal foil, or a combination of both. Because of this shield,
coax is highly resistant to electrical magnetic interference (EMI).

 Jacket or sheath: A durable plastic or Teflon jacket coats the

cable to prevent damage.
Some advantages of coaxial cable are as follows:

 Supports high bandwidths

 Heavier types of coax are sturdy and can withstand harsh

environments

 Represents a mature technology that is well understood and

consistently applied among vendors
Coax also has some disadvantages including the following:
 Although fairly insensitive to EMI, coax remains vulnerable to EMI
in harsh conditions such as factories.

 Coax can be bulky.

 Coax is among the most expensive types of wire cables.

Fiber Optic Cable
 Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by
several layers of protective materials

 . It transmits light rather than electronic signals, eliminating the

problem of electrical interference.
 This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large
amount of electrical interference.

 It has also made it the standard for connecting networks between

buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and
lighting.

 Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer
distances than coaxial and twisted pair.

 It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater

speeds. This capacity broadens communication possibilities to
include services such as video conferencing and interactive services.
 The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper
cabling; however, it is more difficult to install and
modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for fiber
optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.
 Fiber optic cables utilize light waves to transmit data
through a thin glass or plastic fiber. The structure of a
typical fiber optic cable is shown in the diagram. The
parts of the cable are as follows:

 The light conductor is a very fine fiber core. Glass is the

most common material, allowing signals to be
transmitted for several kilometers without being
refreshed. Plastic is used in some circumstances, but
plastic cables allow only short cable runs.
 The cladding is a glass layer that surrounds the optical
fiber core. The optical characteristics of the cladding
reflect light back to the core, ensuring that little of the
light signal is lost.

 A sheath or jacket protects the cable from damage. A

single sheath can be used to bundle multiple
core/cladding fibers into a multi-fiber cable.
 The light signals on fiber optic cables are generated either
by light emitting diodes (LEDs) or by injection laser diodes
(ILDs), which are similar to LEDs but produce laser light.
The purity of laser light is desirable, increasing both data
rates and transmission distance. Signals are received by
photodiodes, solid state devices that detect variations in
light intensity.

 The interface devices required to operate with fiber optic

cable are more expensive than those required for copper
cable
 The higher cost is the result of several factors, including
cost of the components and tighter design characteristics
because fiber optic cables generally are operated at high
data rates. The cost of fiber optic cable installation,
however, is trending downward.

 Fiber optic cables have many desirable characteristics.

Because the fibers are small in diameter, a cable of a
given size can contain more fibers than copper wire pairs.
Because fiber optic cables use light pulses instead of
electrical signals,
Here are some advantages of fiber optic cable:

 Very high bandwidth.

 Immunity to EMI; fiber optic cables can be used in environments

that make wire cables unusable.

 No radio frequency emissions; signals on fiber optic cables cannot

interfere with nearby electronic devices and cannot be detected by
conventional electronic eavesdropping techniques.
 Single Mode cable is a single stand of glass fiber with a
diameter of 8.3 to 10 microns that has one mode of
transmission.  Single Mode Fiber with a relatively narrow
diameter, through which only one mode will propagate
typically 1310 or 1550nm. Carries higher bandwidth than
multimode fiber, but requires a light source with a
narrow spectral width. Synonyms mono-mode optical
fiber, single-mode fiber, single-mode optical waveguide,
uni-mode fiber.
 Single-mode fiber gives you a higher transmission rate
and up to 50 times more distance than multimode, but it
also costs more. Single-mode fiber has a much smaller
core than multimode. The small core and single light-
wave virtually eliminate any distortion that could result
from overlapping light pulses, providing the least signal
attenuation and the highest transmission speeds of any
fiber cable type.  

Single-mode optical fiber is an optical fiber in which only

the lowest order bound mode can propagate at the
wavelength of interest typically 1300 to 1320nm.

Multimode cable is made of of glass fibers, with
a common diameters in the 50-to-100 micron
range for the light carry component (the most
common size is 62.5).  POF is a newer plastic-
based cable which promises performance similar
to glass cable on very short runs, but at a lower
cost.
Multimode fiber gives you high bandwidth at
high speeds over medium distances. Light waves
are dispersed into numerous paths, or modes, as
they travel through the cable's core typically 850
or 1300nm. Typical multimode fiber core
diameters are 50, 62.5, and 100 micrometers.
However, in long cable runs (greater than 3000
feet [914.4 meters), multiple paths of light can
cause signal distortion at the receiving end,
resulting in an unclear and incomplete data
transmission.  
Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

The standard connector for unshielded twisted

pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This is a
plastic connector that looks like a large
telephone-style connector . A slot allows the RJ-
45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for
Registered Jack, implying that the connector
follows a standard borrowed from the telephone
industry. This standard designates which wire
goes with each pin inside the connector.
Coaxial Cable Connectors

 The most common type of connector used with coaxial

cables is the British naval connector (Bayone-Neill-
Concelman) (BNC) connector . Different types of
adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-
connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors
on the cable are the weakest points in any network. To
help avoid problems with your network, always use the
BNC connectors that crimp, rather than screw, onto the
cable.
Fiber Optic Connector

The most common connector used with fiber optic

cable is an ST connector. It is barrel shaped, similar
to a BNC connector. A newer connector, the SC, is
becoming more popular. It has a squared face and is
easier to connect in a confined space.
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is the most commonly used
protocol on the Internet.

 The reason for this is because TCP offers error correction. When the
TCP protocol is used there is a "guaranteed delivery."

 This is due largely in part to a method called "flow control."

 Flow control determines when data needs to be re-sent, and stops

the flow of data until previous packets are successfully transferred.
 This works because if a packet of data is sent, a collision
may occur.

 When this happens, the client re-requests the packet

from the server until the whole packet is complete and is
identical to its original.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is anther commonly used protocol on
the Internet.

 However, UDP is never used to send important data such as

WebPages, database information, etc; UDP is commonly used for
streaming audio and video.

 Streaming media such as Windows Media audio files (.WMA) , Real

Player (.RM), and others use UDP because it offers speed! The
reason UDP is faster than TCP is because there is no form of flow
control or error correction
The data sent over the Internet is affected by
collisions, and errors will be present.

Remember that UDP is only concerned with

speed. This is the main reason why streaming
media is not high quality.
TCP FRAME STRUCTURE
Frame Structure

 As data moves along a network, various attributes are

added to the file to create a frame. This process is called
encapsulation. There are different methods of
encapsulation depending on which protocol and
topology are being used. As a result, the frame structure
of these packets differ as well