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COURSE PREVIEW

Theory
Earth magnetism Compasses Compass errors

Practice
Compass swing site Compass swing Alternative methods

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Permanent Magnetism
Certain

materials can be magnetized, By putting them in a magnetic field. After removing the field remnant magnetism will be kept.

N
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Electro Magnetism
Around

a conductor that conducts electrical current a magnetic field is also generated.

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Earth magnetism
The earth can be seen as a giant magnet. The magnetic poles however do not align exactly with the geographic poles. The exact place of the magnetic poles is not constant, but varies in time.
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Magnetic Variation
True North Magnetic north

Variation

Magnetic variation is the angle at a certain point on earth between the magnetic north and the true north. Due to the fact that the place of the magnetic north is not fixed, the variation changes. In Holland about one degree every six years.
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The variation is not a function of the geographical position, But can vary due to changes in the earths rock formations. Lines of equal variation around the globe are so called isogonics lines.

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Variation must always be added to the magnetic heading to get the true heading! Variation is positive if the true north is to the right (east) of the magnetic north. Else it is negative.
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T. North

M. North

variation

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Inclination (magnetic dip)

The direction of the magnetic force at a certain point on earth is not always exactly horizontal. Only at the equator. At the poles they are nearly vertical. The angle of force line with the horizontal is called the inclination or dip angle. A magnetic compass uses only the horizontal component of the earths magnetic field. But the inclination tends to tilt a magnetic compass.
Inclination

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Inclination card

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Intensity
The strength off the earth magnetic field is not constant on all places on earth. The strength of the magnetic field is measured in oersed. In the Netherlands the earths magnetic field is about 0.471 oersted

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Compasses

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Aircraft compasses
There are tree kinds of aircraft compasses. 1. Direct-reading compasses or standby compasses 2. Remote-reading compasses systems with a flux valve 3. Inertial compass systems

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Direct-reading compasses
The Direct-reading compasses is a free turning magnet with a scale around it, mounted on a pivot inside a liquid. The liquid provides damping for the scale. Normally a silicon liquid is used. The center of gravity of the scale and the magnet assembly is well below the pivot point. So that the compass will mainly react to the horizontal component off the earth magnetic field. The liquid is sealed off by a membrane to compensate for volume differences due to temperature changes. Underneath the compass is a compensator unit to allow adjustments to the compass

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The compensator unit

There are two compensators inside the compensator unit. One for Longitudinal axis off the aircraft and one for the cross-axis. Each compensator consists of two bars that can be turned in opposite direction. In each bar two small compensator magnets are mounted. In neutral position the magnetic forces of these magnets oppose each other, giving a resultant field of zero. When the bars are turned, the resultant force will be added to the earths magnetic field, But of course only the vector part that is parallel to the earths field.

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Compensator field

S N N

Earths field

Resultant field
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Direct-reading compasses errors

There are two main errors involved in using a direct-reading compass in an aircraft. 1. Northern turning error. 2. Acceleration error

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Northern turning error

The compass card is mounted so that its center of gravity is well below the pivot point. When the aircraft is in a banked turn, the card also banks because of centrifugal forces. While the card is in the banked attitude, the vertical component of the earths magnetic field causes the compass to dip to the low side of the turn. The error is most apparent when turning trough headings close to north and south. When the aircraft makes a turn from a heading of north, the compass briefly indicates a turn in the opposite direction. Passing trough south, the compass leads the turn considerably. As the aircraft nose passes though the west, the compass should approximate the correct heading. Then, as the aircraft nose approaches north again the compass lags. In the Netherlands this error is 2,5 with a 1 bank and 25 with a 10 bank
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Acceleration error
A second way to tilt the compass card out of the horizontal plane is to accelerate or decelerate the airplane. With the card mounted with its CG below the pivot, acceleration causes the card to tip forward. In the Northern Hemisphere where the magnetic field has a downward component, this causes the northseeking tip of the compass needle to swing downward.

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Other compass errors

Besides the dynamic errors (northern turning error and acceleration error.) and the errors caused by the aircraft it self (for witch we will calibrate the compass.) there are some minor faults in direct-reading compasses. Scale faults caused by an unjust calibration of the scale. Collimination faults, caused by a difference between the magnetic axis of the compass and the north of the scale. Lubber line alignment error. Liquid swirl error. If there is not enough room in the compass housing, the scale will be turned with the aircraft, due to the viscosity of the compass fluid. The first 3 errors will be eliminated when the A error is adjusted during the compass swing.

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Checking a direct reading compass:

Pivot friction test: With the use of a small magnet, make the compass rotate 10 keep it in this position for 10 seconds. Remove the magnet an let the compass come to a rest. Note the heading. Do the same towards the other side. Again note the heading. The difference between the two observations should not be more than 2 . Damping test: With the use of a small magnet make the compass rotate 90 . Keep it in this position for one minute. Take the magnet away. The compass should turn back with in 5 of its original heading with in 10 seconds.

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The remote reading compass

The remote reading compass, in Fokker aircraft called the AHRS (or IRS, but they do not work with the earths magnetic field), is basically a directional gyro system connected to a flux valve. To adjust the gyro heading indication automatically. The flux valve is normally mounted in an area as free as possible Magnetic disturbances. Mostly in the wing tips. On Fokker aircraft the flux valve is mostly indexed. That means that the flux valve can not be turned, to remove a possible A error. This indexing is a factory setting. The flux valve consists of a double 3 spoke transformer with in each Spoke a pick off coil and one exciter coil per pair of spokes. The exciter coil saturates the spokes, so that static magnetic field in each of the spokes is transformed to a alternating field. The strength of this field is a function of the earths magnetic field lines passing trough the length of the spoke. Hence the amplitude of the induced voltage is a function of the position of the spoke in the earths magnetic field. (and the intensity off the field) The coils are mounted on a gimbal with a led weight that keeps it Horizontal.
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Course output 800Hz Excitation 400Hz

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The electric compensator

The flux valve can be electrically compensated for B and C errors. If a small DC current is Applied in the sense windings of the flux valve. This current should generate a magnetic field that is equal in strength as the field that caused the disturbance but opposite in direction.

Flux valve

DC source

800Hz Output

400 Hz excitation
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Compensator drawn for one direction only

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The Remote Compensator unit

The variable DC power source in the previous slide is located in the remote magnetic compensator unit. On the unit, you find also some test points to measure the DC voltage applied to the flux valve and a potentiometer to adjust the voltages. After successful adjustment of the compass system, the voltages should be measured and written down on a sticker on the remote compensator unit. This way a remote compensator unit or flux valve can be replaced without the need to do a new compass swing. Only the voltages should be taken over from the old compensator unit. Inside the remote compensator unit is also a circuit that transforms the tree wire output of the flux valve into 2-wire sine/cosine signals. And a monitor circuit thats checks the functioning of the flux valves and the remote compensator unit.

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Flux valve errors

Principally the flux valve suffers also from the northern turning error and acceleration errors just as the standby compass does. But because the reading of the flux valve output is stabilized with a directional gyro, The readout is much more reliable.

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Aircraft errors
Due to the fact that aircrafts contain a certain amount of iron and other magnetic material and there are a lot of life wires in an aircraft. The aircraft itself will generate a magnetic field that will disturb the precession of the compass systems. These aircraft errors or static errors we can divide into tree categories; Index errors, one cycle errors and two cycle errors.

Static errors

Index errors

One cycle errors Longitudinal Cross B fault B correction

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Two cycle errors

A fault

C fault C correction

D fault

E fault

A correction
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Adjusting the compass

We have to adjust an compass for A, B and C faults. E and F faults are generally minor and are not compensated. The A fault can be compensated by turning the compass or flux-valve in horizontal direction. The B fault is compensated by the E-W adjustment of the compensator. And the C fault is compensated with the N-S adjustment of the compensator.

A
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Total deviation
The total deviation caused by the aircraft should be compensated by means of a A-fault correction that is linear over the whole compass range. B-fault correction, that acts as a cosine function over the compass range C-fault correction thats a sine function. With the B and C correctors we only adjust the amplitudes of the sine and Cosine curves. The total Compensation is the sum of the A-fault, Bfault and C fault corrections. This total correction should compensate for the total deviation generated by the aircraft.

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2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5

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90

180

270

360

A fault

C fault

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B fault

Total correction

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The compass swing location

A compass swing must be carried out on an approved site! An approved site should be accessible and level. Free from magnetic fields (except earths magnetic field.) Should be at least 46 meters away from steel framed buildings and 91 meters from buildings containing electrical power generation. Large enough to swing the aircrafts its intended for.
There are two compass swing site classifications. Class 1 with a permit able deviation of 10. Class 2 with a permit able deviation of 25. Periodic re-survey A class 1 site must be re-surveyed every 5 years. A class 2 site every 2 years. (??) The surveying party must work with the standards of the Admiralty Compass Observatory (ACO) and must be recognized by the CAA. (Source: CAA UK leaflet 8-1 compass base surveying)
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Swing sites at Schiphol

There is only one compass swing site at Amsterdam! This is the fairway near the Martinair hangars. The site near the old Fokker buildings is not surveyed and contains a lot of iron in the ground.

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The Compass swing

A compass swing contains two parts. 1. The correction swing. Where the compass is calibrated and the A, B and C errors are adjusted. 2. The calibration swing, where the remaining deviations are noted and written on the deviation table that is mounted in the aircraft. Note that with a Fokker 100 with IRS systems, the IRS may be used as reference. Else a approved prismatic landing compass mounted on a tripod should be used as a reference. Keep in mind that, when standing in front of the aircraft with a reference compass, the reading is 180 with respect to the aircrafts heading. When reading the reference compass make sure there is sufficient distance between the compass and the aircraft. Take also care not to wear any iron tools, watches, radios etc Be also aware that the reference compass comes also with a deviation card!
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Tail

Window stile

030

Prism

To read the reference compass, position the compass so that the window style and the vertical stabilizer line up with the compasses lubber line. Make sure the reference compass is adjusted horizontally before reading.

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Preparing the compass swing

Before a compass swing is undertaken make sure the following preconditions are met: Authorization of the airport authorities. Towing facilities. Daylight! Make sure you have the following equipment with you. A stairs to leave and enter the aircraft in the field (if there is no air stair on F100). Special adjustment tool for the standby compass. Flat screw driver for A fault adjustment stby compass and compensator adjustment. Wrench to loosen and tighten the locking nuts on the AHRS compensator unit Voltmeter to measure the compensation voltages on the compensator. Two Porto phones to communicate between outside and inside of aircraft. Master compass and tripod or pylorus and bracket and course list. Correction form, deviation form and deviation cards.

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Start at North

The Readout of the master compass The readout on the aircraft compass

Adjusted readings
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Example calculation

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The calibration swing

After the correction swing is performed, a calibration swing should be made. The calibration swing is to verify the correct adjustment of the compass and to make a deviation list and deviation cards, to make the crew aware of the remaining deviation errors. We are making a full 360 degrees swing with 30 degrees interval. On every interval we note the deviation of the standby compass and the two AHRS systems and the standby compass in emergency power condition.

For the standby compass the maximal deviation may be 10 degrees but between successive (30) steps the difference in deviation may be 4 maximum!
The maximum deviation for the AHRS may be 2!

After the calibration swing a deviation form should be filled in for tech records and deviation cards should be made for in the cockpit.

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The pylorus method

With a normal compass swing a master compass is used as reference. As an alternative a pylorus can also be used if the compass swing site is approved for this method. A pylorus is an instrument with witch we can very precisely measure a angle between two points. In our case the longitudinal axis of the aircraft and a known point at some distance away. The angle between this known point and the aircraft heading is predetermined for all compass headings used during the compass swing By measuring the angle with the aircraft longitudinal axis, and comparing this with the predetermined value, we can calculate the deviation.

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Before we start using the pylorus, we have to align the instrument with the aircrafts longitudinal axis. This is done by putting the instrument on a known spot (cockpit side window), Level the instrument and then point the instrument exactly to the wing tip and adjust the bottom reference ring of the pylorus to 240.25 (F50) as given on the job card. Now the zero should be exactly in line with the aircrafts longitudinal axis. After this we can shoot for every 30 heading a suitable target from the target list. By subtracting the value given on the target list , With the actual readout on the pylorus scale, the datum heading can be calculated. Subtract the readout heading from the datum and you get the deviation.

Fixed distance 32cm

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330

Value on target list

Actual value

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Focus Fine adjust

Deviation scale Clamps to fix pylorus to aircraft window structure Horizontal adjustment
longitudinal axis adjustment ring longitudinal axis adjustment ring Fixing Bolt

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Leveling bubble

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The End

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