Sehar Hassan, Ph.D.

Psychology

Which theory is more valid? Theories presented are not in competition with each other but actually complement each other. How these theories are tied together and inter-related.

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Basic foundation of this model is on Expectancy Theory.

Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom) The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

1.

Opportunities can either hinder or aid individual effort.

2.

Individual effort ---------Personal goals Goal Directed Behavior

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The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

Relationship among above factors is influenced by some other factors - Requisite ability to perform - Performance appraisal system

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Relationship b/w rewards and goals

Motivation would be high to the degree that the rewards an individual received for high performance satisfied the dominant needs consistent with individual goals.

Basing rewards on the basis of performance should decrease the individual intrinsic motivation.

This theory enters the model by recognizing that the organizations rewards reinforce the individual performance.
The good reward will reinforce and encourage continued good performance.

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A high achiever is not motivated by an organizations assessment of performance or organizational rewards hence the link of individual effort with personal goals is indicated in the model.
They are internally motivated so not concerned with effort performance, performance reward or reward goal linkages.

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This theory enters the model by recognizing that the organizations rewards (e.g. pay and respect etc) they receive is justified relative to others.

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All theories actually address outcome variables.

Outcome Variables are - Earnings - Productivity
-

Let see how these theories explain these outcome variables and how much accurate predictions they able to make

Maslow Hierarchy ERG Theory Mc Clelland Needs Two Factor Theory In general these theories are not valid explanations of motivation Mc Clelland theory able to explain relationship b/w Need for Achievement and Productivity

Provide most powerful explanation between motivation and one of the outcome variables (Productivity). Does not strongly address absenteeism, turnover or satisfaction.

Can predict - Quality of work - Quantity of work - Persistence of effort - Absenteeism - Non-punctuality

Does not address - Satisfaction - Decision to quit work

Deals with - Productivity - Satisfaction - Absenteeism - Turn-over Get strongest support in literature.

Focus on performance variables - Employee Productivity - Absenteeism - Turn over

-

Theory has support from literature as people do consider expected outcomes.

Job characteristic Model and evaluating how job motivates by changing work environment. Three main ways how jobs can be redesigned Three alternative work arrangements and how it motivates employees

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Job Motivating Potential

Job Characteristics Model Identifies five job characteristics and their relationship to personal and work outcomes.

Characteristics:
1. Skill variety 2. Task identity 3. Task significance 4. Autonomy 5. Feedback

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Skill Variety: Variety of different activities and skill. E.g. Owner-operator of garage Task Identity: Completion of whole identifiable task. E.g. dress designer and tailor Task Significance: Degree to which job has substantial impact. E.g. nurse and sweeper Autonomy: Job provides substantial freedom and independence. E.g. Salesperson decide himself most effective
approach for each customer Vs same mechanism for each.

Feed back: Direct and clear information about performance. E.g. Testing i-pod themselves or by quality control.
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Source: J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham, Work Design (excerpted from pp. 7880). 1980
by Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc.

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EXHIBI T 66

Core dimensions added to get single predictive indext call MPS MPS=
back

Skill Variety + Task Identity + Task Significance x Autonomy x Feed

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Job Rotation

The periodic shifting of a worker from one task to another. Job Enlargement
The horizontal expansion of jobs. Job Enrichment The vertical expansion of jobs.
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Source: J.R. Hackman and J.L. Suttle, eds., Improving Life at Work (Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, 1977), p. 138. 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. 733 All rights reserved.

EXHIBI T 74

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Flextime
Employees work during a common core time period each day but have discretion in forming their total workday from a flexible set of hours outside the core.

Job Sharing
The practice of having two or more people split a 40-hour-a-week job.

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EXHIBI T 75

Telecommuting

Employees do their work at home on a computer that is linked to their office.

Categories of telecommuting jobs:

Routine information handling tasks Mobile activities Professional and other knowledge-related tasks

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Advantages

Larger labor pool

Higher productivity Less turnover

Disadvantages (Employer) Less direct supervision of employees

Improved morale
Reduced office-space costs

Difficult to coordinate teamwork

Difficult to evaluate non-quantitative performance
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Absence of obstacles that constrain the employee. High levels of performance are partially a function of the opportunity to perform. E.g. Students graduated with same degree get different job placements with different facilities to do their work.

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Job characteristic Model

Characteristics:
1. Skill variety 2. Task identity 3. Task significance 4. Autonomy 5. Feedback
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Three main ways how jobs can be redesigned

1. Job Rotation 2. Job Enlargement 3. Job Enrichment

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Three alternative work arrangements and how it motivates employees

1. Flex time 2. Job Sharing

3. Telecommuting

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Able to give examples of Employee Involvement Measures and show how they can motivate employees
How Variable Pay Programs can increase employee motivation

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Employee Involvement Program A participative process that uses the entire capacity of employees and is designed to encourage increased commitment to the organizations success.

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Participative Management A process in which subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors.

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Representative Participation
Workers participate in organizational decision making through a small group of representative employees.

Works Councils Groups of nominated or elected employees who must be consulted when management makes decisions involving personnel. Board Representative A form of representative participation; employees sit on a companys board of directors and represent the interests of the firms employees.
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Quality Circle A work group of employees who meet regularly to discuss their quality problems, investigate causes, recommend solutions, and take corrective actions.

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Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs)

Company-established benefit plans in which employees acquire stock as part of their benefits.

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Employees tailor their benefit program to meet their personal need by picking and choosing from a menu of benefit options. Modular Plans:

Core-Plus Plans:

a core of essential benefits and a menu-like selection of other benefit options.

Flexible Spending Plans:

predesigned benefits packages for specific groups of employees.

allow employees to use their tax-free benefit dollars purchase benefits and pay service premiums.
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Types of programs
Personal attention Expressing interest Approval Appreciation for a job well done

Benefits of programs
Fulfill employees desire for recognition. Encourages repetition of desired behaviors. Enhance group/team cohesiveness and motivation. Encourages employee suggestions for improving processes and cutting costs.
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Participative Management

Theory Y

Employee Involvement Programs

Two-Factor Theory
Intrinsic Motivation Increase opportunities for growth, involvement in work itself.

ERG Theory
Employee Needs

Need for responsibility Need of Achievement Need of Recognition & Growth

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Give examples of Employee Involvement

1. Participative Management 2. Representative participation 3. Quality Circles

4. Employee Stock Ownership Plans

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Motivating Employees in Organizations

Recognize individual differences.
Use goals and feedback. Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them. Link rewards to performance. Check the system for equity.

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