INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

Objective
The primary objective of this report is to inform NRC staff of emerging I&C technologies and applications that are being studied or developed for use in both operating and new NPPs The focus of this report is the review of seven technology areas:

(1) Sensors and measurement systems (2) Communications & networking media (3) Testing and calibration (4) Computational platforms (5) Human-system interactions (6) High-integrity software (7) I&C architectures in new plants

INTRODUCTIONNuclear power plants rely on instrumentation and control (I&C) systems for monitoring, control, and protection.

During their extensive history, analog I&C systems have performed intended monitoring and control functions satisfactorily. Although there have been some design problems, such as inaccurate design specifications conditions, the primary concern with the extended use of analog systems e.g. mechanical failures, environmental degradation.

Experience from operation can be used to improve existing power plants as well as the design of new ones. It influences the design of I&C in different areas, the most important of which are:

Increasing plant availability by various means. Identifying new functions for the plant computer systems to support the operators. Testing and calibration during power operation. Human error. New technology.

IMPORTANCE OF INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLThe instrumentation and control (I&C) systems of a nuclear power plant (NPP) have three major roles 1) Firstly,

they are the eyes and ears of the operator. If properly planned, designed, constructed and maintained, they provide accurate and appropriate information and permit judicious action during both normal and abnormal operation.

2) Secondly, under normal operating conditions they provide automatic control, both of the main plant and of many ancillary systems. This allows the operator time to observe plant behaviour and monitor what is happening so that the right corrective action can be taken quickly, if required

3) Thirdly, the I&C safety systems protect the plant from the consequences of any mistakes which the operator or the automatic control system may make. Under abnormal conditions they provide rapid automatic action to protect both the plant and the environment.

Overview
We will start with a brief introduction, then extraction and processing of uranium. We then discuss the distribution of uranium to enrichment facilities, and the enrichment process. This is followed by a more detailed explanation of nuclear uses for weapons and electricity production & control of nuclear power plant.

Brief History
Nuclear energy was first discovered in 1934 by Enrico Fermi. The first nuclear bombs were built in 1945 as a result of the infamous Manhattan Project. The first plutonium bomb, code-named Trinity, was detonated on July 16, 1945 in New Mexico. On August 6th 1945 the first uranium bomb was detonated over Hiroshima. Three days later a plutonium bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. There is over 200,000 deaths associated with these detonations. Electricity wasnt produced with nuclear energy until 1951.
Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May

Radiation
Radiation is the result of an unstable atom decaying to reach a stable state. Half-life is the average amount of time it takes for a sample of a particular element to decay half way.

Natural radiation is everywhereour bodies, rocks, water, sunshine. However, manmade radiation is much stronger. There are currently 37 radioactive elements in the periodic table 26 of them are manmade and include plutonium.
Source: http://theodoregray.com/PeriodicTable/index.html

Fukushima Daini power plant

Types of Radiation
There are several different kinds of radiation: alpha radiation, beta radiation, gamma rays, and neutron emission. Alpha radiation is the release of two protons and two neutrons, and normally occurs in fission of heavier elements. Alpha particles are heavy and cannot penetrate human skin. Beta particles can penetrate the skin, but not light metals. Gamma rays is a type of electromagnetic radiation which is left over after alpha and beta are released and include X-rays, light, radio waves, and microwaves.

Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May

Penetration of Radioactive particles

Source: http://www.ratical.org/radiation/NRBE/NRBE3.html

Uranium
Uranium is usually mined similarly to other heavy metalsunder ground or in open pits but other methods can also be used. After the uranium is mined it is milled near the excavation site using leaching processes. The mining process explained here is a combination of two of major mines in Australia. Then we will look at the Navajo uranium miners who were some of the first uranium miners. Next I will explain some of the other community and environmental impacts associated with the mining processes.

Mining
Uranium ore is usually located aerially; core samples are then drilled and analyzed by geologists. The uranium ore is extracted by means of drilling and blasting. Mines can be in either open pits or underground. Uranium concentrations are a small percentage of the rock that is mined, so tons of tailings waste are generated by the mining process.
Sources: http://www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.html and http://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdf and http://www.worldnuclear.org/education/mining.htm

Milling & Leaching

The ore is first crushed into smaller bits, then it is sent through a ball mill where it is crushed into a fine powder. The fine ore is mixed with water, thickened, and then put into leaching tanks where 90% of the uranium ore is leached out with sulfuric acid. Next the uranium ore is separated from the depleted ore in a multistage washing system. The depleted ore is then neutralized with lime and put into a tailings repository.
Sources: http://www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.html and http://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdf

Mining Leaders
Australia and Canada are currently the biggest Uranium miners. The aforementioned process that takes place in Australia is exported because Australia does not have a nuclear energy program. The mining in Australian is primarily open pit, while the mining in Canada is mostly underground. Following is two chartsone is the major uranium producing countries, the other is of the major corporations that actually do the mining.
Source: http://www.antenna.nl/wise/uranium/uwai.html

Production in 2000
Canada Australia 10,682 7,578

Niger
Namibia Uzbekistan Russia (est) Kazakhstan USA South Africa China (est) Ukraine (est) Czech Republic India (est) France others Total world

2,895
2,714 2,350 2,000 1,752 1,456 878 500 500 500 200 319 422 34,746

company Cameco Cogema

tonnes U 7218 6643

WMC
ERA Navoi Rossing KazAtomProm Priargunsky

3693
3564 2400 2239 2018 2000

Source: http://www.world-nuclear.org/search/index.htm

Reactor Types
PRWPressurized Water Reactordoes not boil, but uses the pressure of the water to heat a secondary source of water that generates electricity. Most popular (accounts for 65% of reactors world wide). Considered a light water reactor. BRWBoiling Water Reactorboils water (coolant) that makes steam to turn turbines. Conducive to internal contamination. Also considered a light water reactor. RBMKGraphite-moderated pressure tube boiling-water reactor similar to BWR but uses graphite and oxygen. Complex and difficult to examine. CANDUCanadian Deuterium UraniumDoesnt use enriched fuel. Has lots of tubes and internal contamination issues. AGRAdvanced Gas-cooledalso cooled with carbon dioxide or helium. Uses enriched uranium. (UK). Fast Breederhigh temperature gas reactor. Uses U235, U238, and Plutonium 239. Very dangerous because it uses liquid sodium in the primary circuit and in inflammable with air and explosive with water.
Source: www.world-nuclear.org/

I&C CONTROL SYSTEM

sensors and measurement systemsFocus area, the key regulatory issues include response time requirements accuracy of the instrumentation which can enable applicants to argue for reduced operating margins. These are mainly optical fiber based sensors. Use of sensors with inherent drift-free characteristics we can eliminate the need for calibration.

Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Std. 338-2006, IEEE Standard Criteria for Periodic Surveillance Testing of Nuclear Power Generating Station Safety Systems, provides criteria for the periodic testing of nuclear power generating station safety systems

 1) 2) 3) 4)

For the communication and networking focus areaBoosting data transmission speeds. Developing more robust protocols Error correction spectrum Techniques (direct sequence, frequency hopping, time hopped).

 Human errorThe number of human errors in NPP operation is likely to increase because: As plants become older, more manual maintenance is required. Experienced operators, some of whom may have worked in the control room since commissioning, are being replaced. It include Organizational improvements; Training improvements; Modification of existing equipment; Installation of new equipment.

 Testing and calibrationDuring baseload operation, manual testing of I&C and calibration of sensors can be extensive. However, because of the possibility of human Error in manual testing and calibration has two disadvantages:

Spurious scrams may occur during the testing of protection systems; Temporary bypasses may not be restored after testing

For these reasons, on-line and automatic testing is being introduced more and more in new systems as well as by backfitting. Such automated testing equipment can be rather complicated, with the result that protection systems on which it is fitted areless simple during operation. This can be done by using better component quality & increasing the mean time between failures (MTBF) or by improving fault tolerance by better design.

 Plant availabilityImproving plant availability and Reducing stress by reducing the number of reactor scrams and turbine trips has been an important endeavour and the study of scrams and trips has often led to Design improvements in I&C. In the early years of plant operation, the contribution of spurious scrams from I&C itself can be relatively high and can be reduced by modifications such as:

(a) Making the protection system more tolerant to transients which are not significant to safety, e.g. by increasing its resistance to electromagnetic interference. (b) Increasing the quality and redundancy of important control systems in the plant. Examples - systems for feedwater control, turbine control, reactor pressure control and control of the feedwater heating in which single channels have been replaced by multiple ones.

 New technology & software Three generations of I&C systems of NPP have been installed. 1) first used analog technology for instrumentation and relay based equipment for control. 2) Second & third generation used discrete or integrated solid state equipment for both functions & latest uses digital equipment for both.

Digital technology has been used in all types of industrialapplication for many years and has been in operation in NPPs since about 1980. Examples of the application of digital technology for protection are described for CANDU reactors and in French 1300 MW.

MAIN CONTROL ROOMAccident and post-accident management should be conducted from the main control room (MCR) by a special team and safety engineers. The teams ability to mitigate the consequences of an accident will strongly depend on the control room facilities and adequacy of the monitoring system. Plant control room should provide indications of: Core integrity; Reactor coolant system integrity; Containment integrity; Radiological state of the plant.

IEC standards, guides and report As early as the 1960s, the IEC became active in the formulation of rules on I&C system design for NPPs.

General principles and characteristics as well as recommended test methods were early topics promoted by Technical Committee. There are two subcommittees SC45A (Reactor Instrumentation) and SC45B (Radiation Protection Instrumentation).

 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS Digital electronics technology has rapidly taken over the bulk of new electronic applications for NPP increased functionality, lower cost, improved reliability and reduced maintenance requirements.

Relay logic has been replaced almost completely by digital logic. Control panel instruments (controllers, display meters, recorders, etc.) have essentially become digital devices. The majority of diagnostic equipment and measuring instruments have become digital and provide more accurate and reliable readings than their analog counter parts.

 MICROPROCESSOR BASED SYSTEMSMicroprocessors have I&C systems with their capability for convenient programming of complex tasks, they have found applications in NPP. . Many applications which would, in the past, have used relays to implement logic are now largely built using microprocessorbased programmable logic controllers (PLCs). PLCs provide a huge range of capabilities and functions that were not possible with relays.

Present situation The need to enhance safety and performance factors, as well as to reduce engineering and construction costs, has greatly increased the awareness of quality assurance (QA) for all NPP systems. In particular, software QA has received considerable attention in the last decade because of the increasing use of software based I&C systems and continuing difficulty in establishing quantifiable measures for software reliability

Future situation In future, a great deal of experience in plant and system design, operation and maintenance will be available and margins to preserve safety will need only be very small. Indeed there will be economic pressure to make them as small as possible. Fully automatic control systems and a protective structure based on a defence in depth strategy and/or with diverse functions will be fitted. These will be implemented with extended, distributed, digital techniques.

Nuclear Fuel Cycle

We will start the nuclear fuel cycle with a brief explanation of how nuclear energy works, the enrichment process, and then power reactors. Following will be information on Three Mile Island and Chernobyl, the risk of reactor leaks, and the impacts on the communities and the environment. Then we will discuss the nuclear weapons program, including the use of depleted uranium, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, weapons testing, and the effects on soldiers, victims, communities, and the environment.
Source: http://www.sonic.net/~kerry/uranium.html

Key terms
Nuclear energysynonymous with atomic energy, is the energy produced by fission or fusion of atomic nuclei. Atomsare made of three main parts: protons, neutrons, and electrons . The protons and neutrons make up the center of the atom while the electrons orbit around the center . Atomic numberthe number of protons in an element that identifies it. Isotopeif an atom has a different number of neutrons from protons. Isotopes, measured by their total weight called mass number are the sum of neutrons and protons. Some isotopes are unstable and will decay to reach a stable statethese elements are considered radioactive. Ionif an atom has a different number of electron from protons. Fission occurs when an atoms nucleus splits apart to form two or more different atoms. The most easily fissionable elements are the isotopes are uranium 235 and plutonium 239. Fissionable elements are flooded with neutrons causing the elements to split. When these radioactive isotopes split, they form new radioactive chemicals and release extra neutrons that create a chain reaction if other fissionable material is present. While Uranium, atomic number 92, is the heaviest naturally occurring element, many other elements can be made by adding protons and neutrons with particle accelerators or nuclear reactors. In general, the fission process uses higher numbered elements. Fusionis the combining of one or more atomsusually isotopes of hydrogen, which are deuterium and tritium. Atoms naturally repel each other so fusion is easiest with these lightest atoms. To force the atoms together it takes extreme pressure and temperature, this can be produced by a fission reaction.
Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May and Energy and the Environment by James A. Fay and Dan S. Golomb.

Transportation
Radioactive materials are transported from the milling location to the conversion location, then from the conversion location to the enrichment location, then from the enrichment location to the to the fuel fabrication facility, and finally to the power plant. These materials are transported in special containers by specialized transport companies. People involved in the transport process are trained to respond to emergencies. In the US, Asia, and Western Europe transport is mainly by truck, and in Russia mainly by train. Intercontinental transport is usually by ship, and sometimes by air. Since 1971 there has been over 20,000 shipments with no incidents and limited operator exposure.
Source: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf20print.htm Picture: http://www.ocrwm.doe.gov/wat/facts.shtml

Russian RBMK

Reaktor Bolshoy Moshchnosti Kanalniy

Reactor Hazards
Reactor pose a serious threat radiation threatespecially to the employees and surrounding communities. Recently the New York times featured an article Extraordinary Reactor Leak Gets the Industries Attention. The implication is that if this reactor can leak, so can others. Typically, the reactors develop boric acid under their lidswhich eats away at the steel encasement (fixable), but this leak is in at the bottom of a reactor.* In an article featured on CorpWatch, Bechtels Nuclear Nightmares talks about a reactor that the Bechtel corporation built in San Onofrethats been shut down since 1992 for lack of safety upgrades. The problem is that there is no place to permanently send the reactor to and is a risk because it was built on a fault line.** Three Mile Island and Chernobyl are two of the worst incidences of reactor breaches and are explained in the following slides.
*Source: www.nytimes.com/2003/05/01/national/01NUKE.html **Source: www.corpwatch.org/issues/PRT.jsp

Weapons Transportation
Another significant threat is planes armed with these weapons can (and have) crashed; and submarines have also sunk into the ocean. In addition there have been incidents in which material has just been dumped as well. May estimates that there are 60 nuclear weapons and 10 reactors on the ocean floor from submarines, plane crashes, and dumping. Although very strong casings likely guard them, the casings will eventually corrode resulting in radioactive contamination of our ocean and marine life.
Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May

Sources
The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May Atomic Veterans website http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/ WISE http://www.antenna.nl/wise/uranium/uisl.html WWW A bomb museum http://www.csi.ad.jp/ABOMB/ Navajo Indian Miners http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/brugge.html DU article http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/2860759.stm Arms Control website http://armscontrol.org/

UK Chernobyl site http://www.chernobyl.co.uk/ TMI picture: http://www.libraries.psu.edu/crsweb/tmi/tmi.htm