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Theories of Leadership

Trait Personal-Behavioral Situational Transformational

Trait Theories
Traits are distinctive characteristics that distinguish leaders from non-leaders. Early trait theories identified:
Physical characteristics (height, appearance) Personality characteristics (extrovert) Skills and abilities (intelligence) Social factors (interpersonal skills)

Recent Results on Traits


After being rejected as a basis for identifying leaders, trait theories have had a revival. Some studies have identified these traits:
Drive Motivation Integrity Self-confidence Intelligence Knowledge
An AT&T study found these characteristics in managers who advanced:
oral communication skills human relations skills need or motive for advancement resistance to stress tolerance of uncertainty energy creativity

Personal-Behavioral Theories
University of Iowa (Kurt Lewin)
Leadership styles
autocratic democratic laissez-faire

Boys Club test


laissez-faire underperformed autocratic and democratic
same quantity of work democratic - higher quality of work and group satisfaction

Measured quantity and quality of work and group satisfaction

Later tests disputed the differences found between autocratic and democratic

Personal-Behavioral Theories
Tannenbaum and Schmidt
Continuum of leadership behaviors
from boss-centered to subordinate-centered

Leaders need to consider:


Their personal abilities and style Their subordinates preferences and tolerances The nature of the situation

Appropriate leadership behavior is neither autocratic nor democratic, but can be somewhere in-between.

Personal-Behavioral Theories
University of Michigan (Rensis Likert) - Job-centered vs. employee-centered Job-centered
structure the jobs of subordinates closely supervise use incentives to spur production determine standard rates of production

Employee-centered
build effective work groups dedicated to high performance goals focus on the human aspects of subordinates specify and communicate objectives, but give considerable freedom in the means for their achievement

Employee-centered is better.

Personal-Behavioral Theories
Ohio State Studies - two-dimensional model
Initiating structure
structured their roles and the roles of subordinates toward achieving goals actively involved in planning work activities, communicating pertinent information, and scheduling work

Consideration
work atmosphere of mutual trust respect for subordinates ideas consideration of subordinates feelings good two-way communication

Consideration produced higher employee satisfaction.

Personal-Behavioral Theories
Blake and Mouton - Managerial Grid
Concern for Production vs. Concern for People
Better to be high on both dimensions

Other studies suggest that high on both dimensions is not always best
Flexibility is necessary, depending on situation

Situational Theories
Fiedlers Contingency Model
Leader style is either task-oriented or relationship-oriented Style depends on three situational factors
leader-member relations task structure position power

Situational Theories
Vroom/Yetton/Jago Leadership-Style Theory (called Normative Leadership Model in text) Leader style is either autocratic, consultative, or group Style depends on eight situational factors
quality requirement commitment requirement leaders information problem structure

commitment probability goal congruence subordinate conflict subordinate information

Situational Theories
Hersey and Blanchard - Situational Leadership Theory Leader style depends on the readiness of followers as defined by their:
Ability Willingness

Style takes the form of four leader behaviors


Telling Selling Participating Delegating

Situational Theories
Path-goal Theory Leader style is either directive, supportive, participative, or achievement-oriented Style depends on two types of situational factors Subordinate characteristics
personality traits skills, abilities, and needs

Context characteristics
the task itself the work group the organizations authority structure

Transformational Leadership
Three leader factors are important:
charisma individualized consideration
delegating paying attention to followers needs treating followers with respect

intellectual stimulation
offering new ideas to stimulate followers encouraging followers to think and act creatively

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