FUNDAMENTAL OF FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(ASAS KEJURUTERAAN ELEKTRIK) (ASAS KEJURUTERAAN ELEKTRIK)

SEE 1003 By DR. ZOLKAFLE BIN BUNTAT HIGH VOLTAGE AND HIGH CURRENT INSTITUTE FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, UTM. zolkafle@fke.utm.my

2006/2007 - 01

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT

1. Basic Concepts
One thing I have learned in a long life: that all our science, measured against reality, is a primitive and childlike and yet is the most precious thing we have. - Albert Einstein

Content
1.1 Introduction 1.2 Systems of unit 1.3 Charge and Current 1.4 Voltage 1.5 Power and Energy 1.6 Circuit Elements

Content (cont)
1.7 Resistor 1.8 Ohms Law 1.9 Power 1.10 Kirchhoffs circuit Law

1.1 Introduction
Electrical Engineering - power - electric machines - controls - electronics - communications - instrumentation

Electric circuit : is an interconnection of electrical elements. A simple electric circuit consists of 3 basic elements : a battery, a lamp and connecting wires. How does it respond to a given input?

How do the interconnected elements and devices in the circuit interact?

1.2 System of Units

1.3 Charge and Current

Electric charge
the most basic quantity in an electric circuit. Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in coulombs (C).

 Recall: matter made of atoms

Each atom consists of electrons, protons and neutrons. Charge e on an electron is ve and equal in magnitude to 1.602 x 10-19 c. Proton carries a +ve charge of the same magnitude as the electron.

Equal numbers of protons and electrons leaves an atom neutrally charged.

 1 electron = 1.602 x 10

-19

coulomb
-19

Thus, 1 coulomb = 1/(1.602 x 10 )

electrons. = 6.24 x 1018

(Recall: The Coulomb is the large unit for charges.)

 Electric charge/electricity
Can be transferred from one place to another, where it can be converted to another form of energy.

The motion of charges creates electric current.

Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).

 Mathematically, the relationship between current i, and charge q, and time t is dq i= dt

Where current is measured in amperes, A. 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second.

The charge transferred between time to and t is

Q = idt
to

A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time. An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time.

When a conducting wire is connected to a battery, the charges are compelled to move: +ve charges move in one direction; -ve charges move in the opposite direction It is conventionally to take the current flow as the movement of +ve charges.

Conventional current flow (a) +ve current flow (b) ve current flow.

Example 1
How much charge is represented by 4,600 electrons? Solution:
Each electron has 1.602 x 10-19 c Hence 4,600 electrons will have 1.602 x 10-19 c/electron x 4,600 electrons = -7.369 x 10-16 c.

Example 2
The total charge entering a terminal is given by q = 5t sin4t mC. Calculate the current at t = 0.5 s.
Solution:
dq d (5t sin 4 )m /s i= = t C dt dt =(5 sin 4 +2 co 4 )m t 0 t s t A A t =0 t .5 i =5 sin +10 co 2 =0 +1 =3 .4 m 2 s 0 1 2 A

Example 3
Determine the total charge entering a terminal between t = 1 s and t = 2 s if the current passing the terminal is i = (3t2 t) A. Solution

Q = idt = 3t 2 t dt
i= 1 1

3 t 1 t = ( 8 2 ) 1 = 5.5C = 2 1 2
2

Practice Problem 1
Calculate the amount of charge represented by two million protons. Solution
A proton has 1.602 x 10-19 C. Hence, 2 million protons have +1.602 x 10-19 x 2 x 106 = 3.204 x 1013 C

Practice Problem 2
If in Ex. 2, q = (10 10e-2t) mC, find the current at t = 0.5s. Solution i = dq/dt = -10(2)e-2t mA At t = 0.5 sec, i = 20e-1 = 7.358 mA

Practice Problem 3
The current flowing through an element is

i=

2 A, 2 t 2 A,

0 t 1 t 1

Calculate the charge entering the element from t = 0 to t = 2 s Solution

1.4 Voltage
To move the electron in a conductor requires some work or energy. This work is performed by an external electromotive force (emf). This emf is also known as voltage or potential difference. Vab energy needed to move a unit charge from a to b

vab

dw = dq

where w is energy in Joules, q is charge in coulomb and v is measured in volt.

1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton-meter/coulomb

Voltage is the energy required to move a unit charge through an element, measured in volts (V).

Polarity of voltage vab

Two equivalent representations of the same voltage vab (a) point a is 9 V above point b, (b) point b is -9 V above point a.

V dc voltage v ac voltage

1.5 Power and Energy

Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).

dw dw dq p= = x = vi dt dq dt

Reference polarities for power using the passive sign convention : (a) absorbing power (b) supplying power

Two cases of an element with an absorbing power of 12 W : (a) p = 4 x 3 = 12 W (b) p = 4 x 3 = 12 W.

Two cases of an element with a supplying power of 12 W : (a) p = -4 x 3 = -12 W (b) p = -4 x 3 = -12 W.

Example 4

Example 5

Example 6

Practice Problem 4

Solution

Practice Problem 5

Solution

Practice Problem 6

Solution

1.6 Circuit Elements

Active Elements
Capable of generating energy Ex.: generator, batteries opAmp

Pasive Elements
Not capable generating energy Ex.: resistors, capacitors, inductors.

The most important active elements are voltage and current sources : independent and dependent sources.

An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage or current that is completely independent of other circuit elements.
Symbol for independent current source.

Symbols for independent voltage sources: (a) used for constant or time-varying voltage, (b) used for constant voltage (dc).

An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source quantity is controlled by another voltage or current.
Symbols for: (a) dependent voltage source (b) dependent current source.

The source on the right-hand side is a current-controlled voltage source.

 Four possible types of dependent sources:

A A A A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS) current-controlled voltage source (CCVS) voltage-controlled current source (VCCS) current-controlled current source (CCCS)

PASSIVE SIGN CONVENTION

Passive sign convention is satisfied when the current enters through the positive terminal of an element and p = +vi. If the current enters through the negative terminal, p = -vi

Example 7
Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element. Solution
P1= 20(-5) = -100W Supplied power P2 = 12(5) = 60 W Absorbed power P3 = 8(6) = 48 W Absorbed power P4 = 8(-0.2 x 5) = - 8 W Supplied power Note: P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 = 0

Practice Problem 1
Compute the power absorbed or supplied by each of the circuit. Solution

Example 8

Example 9

Example 10

1.7 Resistor
A resistor is a two-terminal electrical or electronic component that resists an electric current by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in accordance with Ohm's law. A component has a resistance of 1 if a voltage of 1 volt across the component results in a current of 1 ampere, Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits in order to limit current flow. The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the ratio of the voltage applied to the electric current which flows through it:

Resistor symbols
The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm ().

Fixed Resistor

Variable resistors

Types of resistor
Fixed resistors
There are carbon film and metal film resistors. At high power levels, resistors tend to be wire wound types.

Another samples of resistors

Some low-power resistors

High-power resistors and

Variable resistors
The variable resistor is a resistor whose value can be adjusted by turning a shaft or sliding a control. They are also called potentiometers or rheostats and allow the resistance of the device to be altered by hand.

Resistor Color Code

Color Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White Gold Silver None 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1st band 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2nd band 3rd band (multiplier) 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 0.1 0.01 5% (J) 10% (K) 20% (M) 0.5% (D) 0.25% (C) 0.1% (B) 0.05% (A) 1 ppm 10 ppm 5 ppm 1% (F) 2% (G) 100 ppm 50 ppm 15 ppm 25 ppm 4th band (tolerance) Temp. Coefficient

Note: red to violet are the colors of the rainbow where red is low energy and violet is higher energy.

Resistors tolerance
Resistors are often marked with their tolerance (maximum expected variation from the marked resistance). On color coded resistors the color of the rightmost band denotes the tolerance: silver 10% gold 5% red 2% brown 1%.

1.8 Ohm's Law

For many conductors of electricity, the electric current which will flow through them is directly proportional to the voltage applied to them.

Example 11

Example 12

Example 13

The formulas of ohm's law

Ohm's law knows three formulas for calculating the current, the resistor, and the voltage: If a current I should flow through a resistor R, the voltage V can be calculated.

V=RI
If there is a voltage V at a resistor R, a current I flows through the resistor R.

I=V/R
If a current I flows through a resistor R, there will be a voltage V.

R=V/I

1.9 Power
Power is the rate of work done in a specific time The electric power in watts associated with a complete electric circuit or a circuit component represents the rate at which energy is converted from the electrical energy of the moving charges to some other form, e.g., heat, mechanical energy, or energy stored in electric fields or magnetic fields.

P = W/t = QV/t = V Q/t = VI

Where I= Q/t

Power Dissipated in Resistor

Convenient expressions for the power dissipated in a resistor can be obtained by the use of Ohm's Law. The power dissipated by a resistor is the voltage across the resistor multiplied by the current through the resistor:

Formula wheel

1.10 Kirchhoffs circuit Law

Kirchhoff's circuit laws are a pair of laws that deal with the conservation of charge and energy in electrical circuits, and were first described in 1845 by Gustav Kirchhoff. i.Kirchhoff's current law ii.Kirchhoff's voltage law

Kirchhoff's Current Law

The electric current in amperes which flows into any junction in an electric circuit is equal to the current which flows out.

i1 + i4 = i2 + i3

Example 14
What is the value of Iba?

Example 15
What is the value of Ix?

Example 16
What is the value of Idc?

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

The voltage changes around any closed loop must sum to zero. No matter what path you take through an electric circuit, if you return to your starting point you must measure the same voltage, constraining the net change around the loop to be zero.

v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 = 0

VB = VR1 + VR2

VR1 = VB VR2 = VB

Example 17

Example 18

Practical

Problems

Tutorial 1
P2.45 and P2.47 Find the equivalent resistance at terminal a-b.

P2.36 and P2.38 : Find i and Vo

Electric circuits are considered to be made up of localized circuit elements connected by wires which have essentially negligible resistance. The three basic circuit elements are resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Only these passive elements will be considered here.