Sampling

Unit V

Introduction
A sample is a portion, piece or segment that is representative of the whole. A sample is a part or small section selected from the population. A population or universe may be defined as the aggregate of items possessing a common trait or traits. Population may be finite or infinite. The individual units of the population are called items or elements. The process of selecting a sample from a population is known as sampling.

Essentials of Sampling
A sample should possess the following essentials for valid conclusions of the experimental results.
i. A sample should have similar characteristics of the original population from which it has been selected. ii. Selected sample should be homogeneous. iii. More number of items is to be included in the sample to make the results more reliable. In other words, the size of the sample should be sufficiently large.

Advantages and Shortcomings of Sampling Techniques

Advantages: Reduction of cost Saving of time In case of infinite population, sampling method is the only option available. It is difficult to handle a population consisting of a very large number of elements.

Advantages and Shortcomings of Sampling Techniques (Contd)

Shortcomings: If the population is very small, it may be impossible to draw a representative sample from it. If the sample has not been drawn properly, the results may be inaccurate, false or misleading. Personal bias or prejudice involved in selecting a sample may vitiate the results. If the population is heterogeneous, then the sample may not reflect the true characteristics of the population.

Size of the Sample

Size of the sample is important as a smaller sample may not truly represent the population and a bigger sample will be difficult to manage in terms of analysis and interpretation. The size of the sample should be optimum as the one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility. The size of sample depends on a number of considerations. Some of which are as under: a. If the population consists of a perfectly homogeneous units, a smaller sample will serve the purpose. (Ex: blood of a person) b.If the population consists of heterogeneous units, a large sample is inevitable for yielding reliable results.

Size of the Sample (Contd)

b. The larger the size of the population, the bigger should be the sample size. c. The nature of the study also affects the size of the sample. For an intensive and continuous study, a small sample may be suitable. For studies which are not likely to be repeated, it may be necessary to take a large sample size d. The availability of trained personnel, finance and time and other practical considerations also constitute a big constraint on the sample size. e. It is not necessary that only a large sample will give accurate results. f. The size of the sample is also influenced by the sampling technique

Methods of Sampling
There are two methods of selecting samples from populations they are: A. Non-Random or Non-Probability Sampling B. Random or Probability Sampling

Non Probability Sampling

i. Judgment Sampling ii. Convenience Sampling iii. Quota Sampling

Judgment Sampling
The method is so called as the choice of sample items depends exclusively on the judgment of the investigator. It is a simple method used to obtain a more representative sample. It is widely used in solving every day business problems and making public policy decisions. The drawback of this method is that it is based solely on the judgment of the individual and hence may be biased. The sample may not be representative in character and results may not be accurate.

Convenience Sampling
This method involves selecting the sample on convenience and easy accessibility. This method is quick and cheap. It may not be representative in character and hence may not yield reliable results.

Quota Sampling
It is a type of judgment sampling. In this, sample quotas are fixed according to any characteristics of the population like income, sex, religion etc. It involves less time and money. It may not be representative of the population as it is based on the personal bias of the selector.

Probability Sampling Methods:

Probability or random sampling gives all members of the population a known chance of being selected for inclusion in the sample and this does not depend upon previous events in the selection process. The four methods of random sampling are as under: i. Simple Random Sampling ii. Systematic Sampling iii. Stratified Sampling iv. Cluster Sampling

Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling selects samples by methods that allow each possible sample to have an equal probability of being picked and each item in the entire population to have an equal chance of being included in the sample. One way of ensuring randomness of selection is to adapt the lottery method. This is the most popular and simplest method of selecting a random sample from a finite population (note that this method is inapplicable if the population is infinite.) In this method, all items of population are numbered on separate slips of paper of identical size, shape and color. These slips are folded and mixed up in a box and a blindfold selection is made. Each slip has to be replaced once it is drawn out to ensure that the probability of selecting a second slip remains the same.

Simple Random Sampling (Contd)

Another method of random sampling is to select a sample with the help of random numbers. These numbers can be generated either by a computer programmed to scramble numbers or by a table of random numbers. This method is more scientific as these are less chances of personal bias. The method is also economical as it saves time, money, and labour. The method however suffers from the following drawbacks: a. The method requires a complete list of all the items of the population. This may not be available in many cases. b. When the size of the sample is small, it will not be a true representative of the population.

Systematic Sampling
In systematic sampling, elements are selected from a population at a uniform interval that is measured in time, order or space. Systematic sampling differs from simple random sampling in that each element has an equal chance of being selected but each sample does not have an equal chance of being selected. It is a relatively simple and convenient method of sample selection. It involves less time and labour. The main demerit of this method is that it may not represent the whole population.

Stratified Sampling
In this method, we divide the population into relatively homogeneous groups, called strata. Then we use one of the two approaches- either select at random from each stratum a specified number of elements corresponding to the proportion of that stratum in the population as a whole or draw an equal number of elements from each stratum and give weights to the results according to the stratums proportion of total population. Stratified sampling is appropriate when the population is already divided into groups of different sizes. Stratified sampling, if properly designed accurately reflects the characteristics of the population from which they were chosen as compared to other sampling methods.

Cluster Sampling
In this method, the population is divided into same recognizable subgroups which are called clusters. A random sample of these clusters is drawn and all the units belonging to the selected clusters constitute the sample. In this method, the clusters should be of small size and the number of units in each cluster must be more or less the same. The method offers flexibility which is lacking in other methods. It is less time consuming and less expensive. The method is less accurate than any other method of selecting a sample.

Cluster Sampling (Contd)

In both stratified sampling and cluster sampling, the population is divided into well defined groups. Stratified sampling is used when each group has a small variation within itself but there is a wide variation between the groups. Cluster sampling is the opposite case when there is considerable variation in each group but the groups are essentially similar to each other.

Sampling Distribution
The mean and standard deviation computed from a sample need not be the same as the mean and standard deviation computed from another sample. A probability distribution of all the means of all samples is a distribution of the sample means. This is called a sampling distribution of the mean. Similarly a probability distribution of all the medians (modes or proportions) of all samples is a sampling distribution of the median( or mode or proportion). Such a sampling distribution can be described by its mean and standard deviation.

Sampling Distribution (Contd)

The standard deviation of a sampling distribution of sample means is called standard error of the mean. Similarly the standard deviation of a sampling distribution of sample proportions is called standard error of the proportion. It is called standard error as the variability in the sample statistic is due to sampling errors. Thus the standard deviation of the distribution of a sample statistic is known as standard error of the statistic.

Sampling Errors:
Sampling errors have their origin in sampling as sample is never a perfect miniature of the population. Sampling errors are of two types i. Biased Errors: These errors arise because of bias in selection. ii. Unbiased Errors: Unbiased errors arise due to chance difference between members of the population included in the sample and members not included in the sample. It is known as random sampling error. With the increase in the size of the sample, unbiased errors tend to decrease in magnitude.

Sampling from Normal Population

The sampling distribution of a mean of a sample taken from a normally distributed population demonstrates the following important properties. The sampling distribution has a mean equal to the population mean. x = . The sampling distribution has a standard deviation (standard error) equal to the population standard deviation divided by the square root of the sample size x = /n

Sampling from Normal Population (Contd)

To compute the probability that the sample mean will lie between a range we use the formula: Z = [X - ]/ x Where X = sample means = population mean x = standard error of the mean = /n

Sampling from Non normal Population

When the population is normally distributed the sampling distribution of the mean is also normal. It has been observed that the mean of the sampling distribution of the mean will equal the population mean regardless of the sample size even if the population is not normal. Second, as the sample size increases, the sampling distribution of the mean will approach normality, regardless of the shape of the population distribution.

Sampling from Non normal Population (Contd)

Central Limit Theorem: The relationship between the shape of the population distribution and the shape of the sampling distribution of the means is called Central Limit Theorem. This theorem states that the sampling distribution of the mean approaches normal distribution as the sample size increases. It has been observed that wherever the sample size is at least thirty, the sampling distribution approximates the normal distribution.

Standard Error when population is finite

x = [/n ][(N n)/(N -1)] Where N = size of the population & n = size of the sample The term ][(N n)/(N -1)] is called the finite population multiplier

Problem
From a population of 125 items with a mean of 105 and standard deviation of 17, 64 item were chosen. i. What is the standard error of mean? ii. ii) What is the probability that the sample mean will be 107.5 & 109.

Solution
N = 125 = 105 = 17 n = 64 x = [/n ][(N n)/(N -1)] = 1.4904 To compute probability, find the area of the curve between mean of 107.5 & 109. For x = 107.5 = x - / x = 107.5 105/ 1.4904 = 2.5/1.4904 = 1.68

Solution (Contd)
This corresponds to area of 0.4535 [From Z table] For x = 109 = 109 105/ 1.4904 = 2.683 This corresponds to area of 0.4963 [From Z table] So the probability that the mean will lie between the 2 values = 0.4963 0.4535 = 0.0428 4.28 %