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Memory
Main memory consists of a number of storage locations, each of which is identified by a unique address The ability of the CPU to identify each location is known as its addressability Each location stores a word i.e. the number of bits that can be processed by the CPU in a single operation. Word length may be typically 16, 24, 32 or as many as 64 bits. A large word length improves system performance, though may be less efficient on occasions when the full word length is not used
Main Memory
Main memory, primary memory or simply memory is used by CPU to store/retrieve data and instructions temporarily.
Storage Evaluation Criteria Storage capacity Access time Cost per bit of storage Volatile/Nonvolatile Explanation Maximum number of bytes/words. Time required to locate and retrieved stored data. Cost of a memory unit of a desired capacity. Volatile memory looses data when power source is turned off or interrupted. Nonvolatile memory retains data when power is turned off or interrupted. In random access memory (RAM) every data item can be accessed independently at any instance of time.
Random access
Contents
Address space: Number of memory byte or words Address space = 2n where n is the number of bits in address bus.
Controller
5 -
Data buss
Types of RAM
1. Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) Contents are constantly refreshed 1000 times per second Access time 60 70 nanoseconds
Note: a nanosecond is one billionth of a second! 2. Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory (SDRAM)
Quicker than DRAM Access time less than 60 nanoseconds 3. Direct Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRDRAM) New type of RAM architecture Access time 20 times faster than DRAM More expensive
Types of RAM
4. Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) Doesnt need refreshing Retains contents as long as power applied to the chip
Cache
Memory
(SRAM)
CPU
4. If not, the CPU has to fetch next instruction from main memory - a much slower process
3. If it is, then the instruction is fetched from the cache a very fast position
= Bus connections
Types of RAM
6. Video Random Access memory Holds data to be displayed on computer screen Has two data paths allowing READ and WRITE to occur at the same time
Types of ROM
1. Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) Empty of data when manufactured May be permanently programmed by the user 2. Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)
Types of ROM
3. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) Reprogrammed electrically without using ultraviolet light Must be removed from the computer and placed in a special machine to do this
The basic rule--which states that the number of transistors on a chip doubles every 24 months--has been the guiding principle of the high-tech industry since it was coined by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore in 1965.
These limitations lead to the development of auxiliary memory or secondary storage devices.
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Disk
Optical Disk
Floppy Disk
Hard Disk
CD-ROM
WORM Disk
ZIP Disk
Disk Pack
Winchester Disk
Magnetic Tape
The first truly mass auxiliary storage device was the magnetic tape drive Tape drives have a major problem; can you describe it?
7 Track;6-bit BCD; Even parity (all tracks must have even number of 1)
Track/Channel numbers Parity bit 7 6
A frame
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F G H I J K L MN O P 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 6-bit BCD for letter A (Table 4.2 page 36 Even parity (all tracks must have even number of 1)
zone
5
4 Numeric 3 2 1
Error Checking
9 Track;8-bit EBCDIC; Even parity (all tracks must have even number of 1)
EBCDIC for the letter A Track/Channel numbers 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 A frame 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F G H I J K L MN O P
3s digit 2s digit Added Zone Added Zone Zone Parity bit Zone Units digit 4s digit
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 Error Checking Odd parity (all tracks must have odd number of 1) 8-bit EBCDIC for letter A (Table 4.3 page 8
Terminologies
Record: Group of characters separated by blank Inter record gap (IRG) Blocks: Records are grouped into blocks Blocking factor: # of records perblocks Inter Block gap (IBG) Storage capacity of tape= Data recording density x Length Data transfer rate (bytes/second to main memory Tape drive Tape controller Tape Types (Half-inch tape reel, Half-inch tape cartridge, Quarter-inch streamer tape and 4mm Digital Audio Tape (DAT)
Limitations
The are not suitably for frequent data access. Must be operated in dustless environment. Must be operated in controlled environment. Must have proper identification labels
Magnetic Disks
Generally 8 bit EBCDIC code is used to record the data items. Surface: 2 surfaces per disk. Tracks: 000-199. Sectors: 8 sectors per track. Disk pack: 200 disks. Cylinder: Each track from all recording surfaces in a disk pack form a cylinder. Storage capacity = # of surfaces # of tracks per surface x # of sectors per track x # of bytes per sector. Access mechanism: Read/write head moves to an address by specifying the (disk #, track #, sector #, byte #)
Magnetic Disks
Seek Time: Time to move the R/W head to the desired track. Latency or Rotational Delay Time: Time to rotate the disk to the desired sector of a track. Average Latency Time? Transfer Rate: Rate at which data to be written/read. Transfer rate = n x r /60 where n is the # of bytes per track and r is the revolution per second. Disk Formatting: Formatting prepares a disk to be used by different disk drives. Formatting creates file allocation table (FAT) that specifies the track and sector of the data items. Important: Magnetic Disks are direct or random access device because data items can be accessed by specifying its address. Disk drives with interchangeable disks. Disk drives with fixed disks. Disk Controller: Controls the movement of R/W heads, and disk rotation.
Hard Disk
Disk Packs
Winchester Disk
Limitations
Inefficient for sequential data processing. Sharing make data unsecured Disk failure. Cost of magnetic tape is lower Must be operated in dustless environment
OPTICAL DISK
In the optic readable CD-ROM, the data storage consists of millions of indentations burnt into light reflecting silver surface. The burnt dents reflect less light than the shiny surface.
Tracks
The CD-ROM has only one track, a spiral winding its way from the center to the outer edge. The spiral track is ideal for reading large block of serial data.
Access MEchanism
A weak laser beam is sent to the disk through a two-way mirror and the sensor registers the difference in light reflection from the burnt and shiny areas as zeros and ones. Access time: 100-300 millisecond. CD-ROM (Compact disk read only memory). WORM (Write once read memory) R/W CD (Read/Write compact disk)
Limitations
Slower than magnetic disk. Complicated drive than magnetic disk.
Mass Storage
Disk Array: It uses a set of magnetic disks. Automated tape library: Uses a set of magnetic tapes. CD-ROM jukebox: Uses a set of CDROM
Cache Memory Main Memory Hard Disk Magnetic tape, Floppy, Mass Storage
Memory Hierarchy