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Phased array technology is the ability to modify

electronically the acoustic probe characteristics

Probe modifications are performed by introducing
time shifts in the signals sent to (pulse) and
received from (echo) individual elements of an
array probe

Any UT technique for flaw detection and sizing
can be applied using phased array probes
What are Phased Arrays?
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High speed electronic scanning without moving
parts
Improved inspection capabilities through software
control of beam characteristics
Inspection with multiple angles with a single
electronically controlled probe
Many configurations: P/E, T/R, TOFD, Tandem
Greater flexibility for inspection of complex
geometries
Optimized focusing
Optimized beam angle

Why Phased Array?
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Phased Array Terminology
Active Aperture
Apodisation
Aperture
Azimuthal Scan
Beam forming
Beam Steering
Delay Laws

Focal Laws
Linear Scan
Phased Array
Sectorial Scan
Steering Aperture
Passive Aperture
Virtual Probe
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How Phased Arrays Work
Probe Design Parameters
Electronics (probe control and data
collection
Beam Forming
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A linear array (1D) is
a long conventional
probe

The probe is cut into
many small elements
that are individually
excited
Design Parameters of
Phased Array Probes
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p g
e
H
A
PROBE PARAMETERS
Frequency (f)
Total number of elements in array (n)
Total aperture in steering or active direction (A)
Height or Elevation, aperture in mechanical or passive direction (H)
Width of an individual element (e)
Pitch, center-to-center distance between two successive elements (p)
Design Parameters of
Phased Array Probes
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PA Probes are based on the Composite Technology.
Signal to noise ratio obtained from composite transducers is typically10-
30dB greater than obtained from piezo-ceramic probes.

Piezo-composite transducer is made by using thin rods of
ceramic material embedded into a polymer.
Thin rods of ceramics
Piezzo composite
polymer
Probe Manufacturing
Composite Technology
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Piezzo composite
Elements
(thin layer of metal)
A metallic layer is deposited on the piezo-composite.

This metallic layer conforms to the element pattern and provides
electrical contacts for each element.
Probe Manufacturing
Composite Technology
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Acoustic matching
Piezo composite
Backing product
Cable up to 128 coaxial
wires
The probe construction is similar to that of a conventional probe
Probe Manufacturing: Casing
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Numerous linear probe designs
The probe can mechanically be focused in the passive
axis
Phased Array and transducer technology allows for
many shapes - flat, curved, conical, elliptical, etc.
15L128E25.6-6
5L16E16-10
10L16E5-6
5L128E96-10C40
5L128E128-12F36
LINEAR 1D
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Ultrasonic phased arrays consist of a series of
individual elements, each with its own
connector, time delay circuit and A/D
converter

Elements are acoustically insulated from each
other

Elements are pulsed in groups with pre-
calculated time delays for each element
- i.e. phasing
Design Parameters Of
Phased Array Probes
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Wave front
Time
Single Trigger Pulse
Phased Array Probes
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Inclined Beam
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Focused Beam
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Linear Probes Electronic Scanning
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Linear Probes Sectorial Scanning
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The elements are purchased as an array with
known geometry

These arrays are manufactured using several
designs - each array is specifically built for the
application, as with conventional ultrasonic
transducers

Typical array designs are:
Linear
Matrix
Circular
Sectorial-annular


Phased Array Probes
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Wedge parameters

Velocity in wedge (vw)
Wedge angle (e)
Height first element (h1)
Offset first element (x1)
o
inc

o
ref

e
h1
Wedge (vw)
x1
Design Parameters Of
Phased Array Probes
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6
X =- 7 . 9 , Y = - 8 . 0 - - > X = 7 . 9
Y =8 . 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 0
1 1
1 2
1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 7
1 8
1 9
2 0
2 1
2 2
2 3
2 4
2 5
2 6
2 7
2 8
2 9
3 0
3 1
3 2
X =- 3 . 9 , Y = - 1 . 9 - - > X = 3 . 9
Y =1 . 9
2D Array Matrix 1D Linear Array
Common Probe Geometries
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Common Probe Geometries
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 0
1 1
1 2
1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
X =- 4 . 4 , Y = - 4 . 4 - - > X = 4 . 4
Y =4 . 4
1
2 3
4 5
6
7 8
9
1 0
1 1 1 2
1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6 1 7
1 8
1 9
2 0
2 1
2 2 2 3
2 4
2 5
2 6
2 7
2 8
2 9 3 0
3 1
3 2
3 3
3 4
3 5
3 6
3 7 3 8
3 9
4 0
4 1
4 2
4 3
4 4
4 5
4 6 4 7
4 8
4 9
5 0
5 1
5 2
5 3
5 4
5 5
5 6 5 7
5 8
5 9
6 0
6 1
X =- 6 . 5 , Y = - 6. 5 - - > X = 6. 5
Y =6 . 5
1D Annular Array 2D Sectorial Annular
Array
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Common Probe Geometries
Daisy Array
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Daisy Probe Data
Polar View (End View)
Axial Plot (Side View)
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Continual or Wrapped Scanning
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Phased Array
Wave-forming Fundamentals
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Beam steering using conventional UT Probe
(on Emission)
Acoustic beam generated by Huyghens
principle
Angled wedge introduces appropriate
delays during emission to generate an
angle beam
Crystal
Wedge
Material
Excitation pulse
Wave front
Delay
Location
A B C
A B C
Conventional Wave-forming
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Inclined Beam
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Beam steering using conventional UT probe (Reception)
Acoustic beam in wedge generated by Huyghens
principle
Angled wedge introduces delays during reception so
that only waves in phase, yield constructive
interference on piezoelectric crystals

Crystal
Wedge
Material
Received signal
Delay
Location
A B
C
A B C
S
Conventional Wave-forming
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Inclined Beam Receive Side
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Beam steering using phased-array probe (Emission)
Acoustic beam generated by Huyghens principle
Appropriate delays introduced electronically during
emission to generate angle beam
Wave front
Time
Delay
Element
Focal law
Phased Array Wave-forming
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Beam steering using phased-array probe (Reception)
Appropriate delays introduced electronically during
reception
Only signals satisfying delay law shall be in phase
and generate significant signal after summation

S
Phased Array Wave-forming
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Global Overview of Phased Array Signal Processing
For economic reasons, pulsers are usually multiplexed.
Instrumentation nomenclature such as a Focus 32/128
refers to an instrument with 32 pulsers multiplexed into a
total of 128 ultrasonic channels.


Phased Array Wave-forming
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Wave-forming
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Focused Beam Receive Side
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Focused and Inclined Beam
Receive Side
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Geometrical
Focal Point
Focal Law Generation
Material Velocity
Delay Law
Element Delay
Element Number
Element Gain

Focal Law
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Focal Law Calculators
Native Tools
TomoView
OmniScan Program Probe
EPRI Workbook
PASS, CIVA, etc.
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Focal Law Calculators
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Phased Array Scanning
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Beam Focusing
The capability to converge the acoustic
energy into a small focal spot

Allows for focusing at several depths
using a single probe

Symmetrical (e.g. parabolic) focal laws
(time delay vs. element position)


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Unfocused Beam:

Near-field and natural divergence of
acoustic beam are determined by total
aperture A and wavelength
Near-field
Divergence (half angle u, at 6 dB )
Beam dimension (at depth z)



=
4
2
A
N
A

u = 5 . 0 sin
A
z
d

=

Beam Focusing
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Focused Beam :
Focusing coefficient (K) is defined as
where F : focal distance
N : near-field

Beam dimension (d
st
) in steering plane
at focal distance is given by



N
F
K =
A
F
d
st
=
Beam Focusing
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Number of elements 10 16 32
Aperture (mm) 10 16 32
N Fresnel distance
(mm) 84 216 865
Focusing depth (mm) 84 84 84
K 0.99 0.39 0.10
d (at focusing depth
mm) 2.49 1.55 0.78
Linear Probe Pitch 1mm, Frequency 5 MHz
In water using a velocity of 1.48 mm/sec
Beam Focusing Theory
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Focusing 10
elements Aperture 10
x 10mm
Focusing 16
elements Aperture
16 x 10mm
Focusing 32
elements Aperture
32 x 10mm
Beam Focusing Beam Profiles
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Mechanical Displacement
c = velocity in material
FOCUS DEPTH (PULSER)
DYNAMIC FOCUSING (RECEIVER)
B
e
a
m

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
DDF is an excellent way of inspecting thick
components in a single pulse. The beam is
refocused electronically on its return.
Schematic Representation
of Dynamic Depth Focusing
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PA imaging without DDF PA imaging using DDF
Dynamic Depth Focusing
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Beam Steering
The capability to modify the
refracted angle of the beam
generated by the array probe

Allows for multiple angle
inspections, using a single probe

Applies symmetrical (e.g. linear)
focal laws

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Illustration of Sectorial
(Azimuthal) Scanning
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1
2......
N
The ability to scan a complete sector of volume without
any probe movement
Useful for inspection of complex geometries, or those
with space restrictions
Combines the advantages of a wide beam and/or
multiple focused probes in a single phased array probe
Sectorial Scanning
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Beam Steering Capability
Is related to the width of an individual
element of the array
Maximum steering angle (at 6 dB), given
by


Steering range can be modified using an
angled wedge





e
st

u = 5 . 0 sin
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Point A is OK because all
rays are within elemental
beamwidth
Point B yields unexpected
results because rays are
outside elemental beam
width

Conclusion: The smaller
the element size, the
better for steering
A
B
o
e
e
st

u = 5 . 0 sin
Implications of Element Size
on Beam-forming
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Electronic Scanning
The ability to move the
acoustic beam along the axis
of the array without any
mechanical movement
The beam movement is
performed by time
multiplexing of the active
group of elements
Scanning extent limited by:
number of elements in
array
number of channels in
acquisition system

Active Group
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Electronic Scanning
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Electronic combined with steering and focusing
Combined Beam Processing
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Weld Scanning
Conceptual animation showing weld inspection using
electronic scanning. Emulates typical ASME-type shear wave
inspection using line scan (much faster) rather than raster
scanning.
A typical weld inspection requires two or more angles with
defined raster size, step size, etc. (mechanical movement in
the scan direction)
There is a need to cover the weld, HAZ, any position
errors => significant amount of scanning
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Tandem for Vertical Defects
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For electronic scans, arrays are multiplexed using the same focal law
For sectorial scans, the same elements are used, but the focal laws are
changed
For Dynamic Depth Focusing, only the receiver focal laws are
changed in hardware
Summary of Scan Types
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Frequency
Element width (e)
Number of elements (n)
Pitch (p)

Array Selection
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Simple approach:
If conventional UT uses, e.g. 10 MHz, use same
frequency for arrays
If conventional UT uses 10 mm aperture, use
similar aperture with PA (e.g. 10 elements of 1 mm
width)
Higher frequencies (and larger apertures) may
provide better signal/noise => tighter, optimized focal
spot
Main manufacturing problems occur at high
frequencies (>15MHz) and small elements

Element Frequency (f)
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Element size (specifically e) is a key issue
As e decreases:
Beam steering capability increases
The number of elements increases rapidly
Manufacturing problems may arise
Minimum element size ~0.15-0.20 mm
Limiting factor often budget, not physics or
manufacturing
Element Size (e)
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Number of elements is a compromise between:
Desired physical coverage of the probe and
sensitivity
Focusing capability
Steering capability
Electronic system capability
Cost
Example:
An array with a large working range AND large steering
capability requires a large amount of small elements.
Such an array may exceed the electronic capability
of the system, or the budget.

Number of Elements (n)
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1 Element
2 Elements
4 Elements
8 Elements
Power of the Elements
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Sectorial scans:
different focal laws are applied to the same group of
elements
smaller elements needed to maximize steering capability
Typical sectorial scan would use a smaller number
(e.g. 16), with a small pitch (<1mm)

Linear scans:
same focal laws multiplexed through many elements
physical coverage important (raster extent)
Typical linear scan would use a greater number (e.g.
32+), with a larger pitch (>1mm)

Design Compromise
4/13/2012 63
Number of active elements per focal law is
typically 16
Maximum aperture (A max) = Pitch (p) x 16
For a high steering range, p must be small
For a good sensitivity, a large Near Zone
distance provides good focusing coefficient,
therefore A must be large
The challenge is to find the best compromise
In terms of ratio p / A
Pitch / Aperture
4/13/2012 64
Typical arrays use side-by-side elements with
acoustic insulation as gap

Grating lobes generally minimized by selecting
suitable element width

To reduce costs, use of a sparse array, with
larger gaps between elements is possible

Sparse arrays tend to produce stronger
grating lobes - these can be minimized by
using random arrangements of the elements.
Element Positioning (p)
4/13/2012 65
Array Lobes
Far-field pattern of an array probe
shows a main beam and grating
lobes at regular angular spacing

Array lobes reduce useful steering
range and may generate multiple
images


4/13/2012 66
Fourier Transform:
Beam width (main beam,
lobes) determined by
aperture A
Steering width determined
by element width e
Angular position of lobes
determined by frequency f
and pitch p
Array Lobes
A
e
p
Z
Fourier Transform
-z/p z/p
sinc(ex/z)
sinc(Ax/z)
p
lobe

u =
4/13/2012 67
Element size (e) > , Side
Lobes will occur
e < /2, No Side Lobes
/2 < e < , Lobe O will
depend on steering angle

Array Lobes - Rules of Thumb
4/13/2012 68
Array Lobes
Influence of pitch (p)
(for A = fixed)

If p reduces, and n
increases
then lobe distance
increases
and lobe amplitude
decreases

Main
lobe
Array
lobe
n=8
p=9


n=12
p=6


n=16
p=4.
5


n=20
p=3.
6
4/13/2012 69
Design Issues - Equivalent Apertures
6 Elements (P) 1mm) 12 Elements (P) 0.4mm) 4 Elements (P)1mm) 8 Elements (P) 0.4mm)
4/13/2012 70
Design Issues
Equivalent Apertures
6 Elements p=0.4mm 3 Elements p=1mm
4/13/2012 71
Acknowledgements
Written by R/D Tech - Quebec Canada

Edited by Tim Armitt at Lavender
International NDT Consultancy Services - UK

First revision Jan 2005 by Larry Etherington
Eclipse Scientific Products Inc.

Screen images produced using the R/D Tech
OmniScan MX

This presentation is part of a series being
produced by the R/D Tech Certified
Training Partners

4/13/2012 72

Questions?