Quality Control

Dr. Everette S. Gardner, Jr.

x x x Check force on level ground Energy needed to open door Engineering characteristics Customer requirements x x Acoustic trans., window

Easy to close Stays open on a hill Easy to open Doesnt leak in rain No road noise
Importance weighting

7 5 3 3 2
10 6 Maintain current level 6 Reduce force to 9 lb. 9 Reduce energy to 7.5 ft/lb 2 3

Correlation: Strong positive Positive x Negative * Strong negative Competitive evaluation x = Us A = Comp. A B = Comp. B (5 is best) 1 2 3 4 5 x AB x AB x AB A xB x A B
Relationships: Strong = 9 Medium = 3 Small = 1

Target values

Technical evaluation (5 is best)

5 4 3 2 1

Door seal resistance

B A

BA x

B A x

B x A

B xA

BA x

Source: Based on John R. Hauser and Don Clausing, The House of Quality, Harvard Business Review, May-June 1988.

Quality

Taguchi analysis
Loss function L(x) = k(x-T)2 where x = any individual value of the quality characteristic T = target quality value k = constant = L(x) / (x-T)2

Average or expected loss, variance known E[L(x)] = k(2 + D2) where 2 = Variance of quality characteristic D2 = ( x T)2
Note: x is the mean quality characteristic. D2 is zero if the mean equals the target.
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Taguchi analysis (cont.)

Average or expected loss, variance unkown E[L(x)] = k[ ( x T)2 / n]
When smaller is better (e.g., percent of impurities) L(x) = kx2 When larger is better (e.g., product life) L(x) = k (1/x2)

Quality

Introduction to quality control charts

Definitions
Variables Measurements on a continuous scale, such as length or weight Integer counts of quality characteristics, such as nbr. good or bad A single non-conforming quality characteristic, such as a blemish A physical unit that contains one or more defects

Attributes
Defect Defective

Types of control charts

Data monitored Mean, range of sample variables Individual variables % of defective units in a sample Number of defects per unit Chart name MR-CHART I-CHART P-CHART C/U-CHART
Quality

Sample size 2 to 5 units 1 unit at least 100 units 1 or more units

5

Sample mean value 0.13% Upper control limit Normal tolerance of process

99.74%

Process mean

Lower control limit 0.13% 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Sample number

Quality

Reference guide to control factors

n 2 3 4 5 A 2.121 1.732 1.500 1.342 A2 1.880 1.023 0.729 0.577 D3 0 0 0 0 D4 3.267 2.574 2.282 2.114 d2 1.128 1.693 2.059 2.316 d3 0.853 0.888 0.880 0.864

Control factors are used to convert the mean of sample ranges ( R ) to: (1) standard deviation estimates for individual observations, and (2) standard error estimates for means and ranges of samples For example, an estimate of the population standard deviation of individual observations (x) is: x = R / d2
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Reference guide to control factors (cont.)

Note that control factors depend on the sample size n. Relationships amongst control factors: A2 = 3 / (d2 x n1/2) D4 = 1 + 3 x d3/d2 D3 = 1 3 x d3/d2, unless the result is negative, then D3 = 0 A = 3 / n1/2 D2 = d2 + 3d3 D1 = d2 3d3, unless the result is negative, then D1 = 0

Quality

Process capability analysis

1. Compute the mean of sample means ( X ). 2. Compute the mean of sample ranges ( R ). 3. Estimate the population standard deviation (x): x = R / d2 4. Estimate the natural tolerance of the process: Natural tolerance = 6x 5. Determine the specification limits: USL = Upper specification limit LSL = Lower specification limit

Quality

Process capability analysis (cont.)

6. Compute capability indices: Process capability potential Cp = (USL LSL) / 6x Upper capability index CpU = (USL X ) / 3x Lower capability index CpL = ( X LSL) / 3x Process capability index Cpk = Minimum (CpU, CpL)
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Mean-Range control chart MR-CHART

1. Compute the mean of sample means ( X ).

2. Compute the mean of sample ranges ( R ).

3. Set 3-std.-dev. control limits for the sample means: UCL = X + A2R LCL = X A2R 4. Set 3-std.-dev. control limits for the sample ranges: UCL = D4R LCL = D3R
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Control chart for percentage defective in a sample P-CHART

1. Compute the mean percentage defective ( P ) for all samples: P = Total nbr. of units defective / Total nbr. of units sampled 2. Compute an individual standard error (SP ) for each sample: SP = [( P (1-P ))/n]1/2 Note: n is the sample size, not the total units sampled. If n is constant, each sample has the same standard error. 3. Set 3-std.-dev. control limits: UCL = P + 3SP LCL = P 3SP
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Control chart for individual observations I-CHART

1. Compute the mean observation value ( X ) X = Sum of observation values / N where N is the number of observations 2. Compute moving range absolute values, starting at obs. nbr. 2: Moving range for obs. 2 = obs. 2 obs. 1 Moving range for obs. 3 = obs. 3 obs. 2 Moving range for obs. N = obs. N obs. N 1 3. Compute the mean of the moving ranges ( R ): R = Sum of the moving ranges / N 1
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Control chart for individual observations I-CHART (cont.)

4. Estimate the population standard deviation (X): X = R / d2 Note: Sample size is always 2, so d2 = 1.128. 5. Set 3-std.-dev. control limits: UCL = X + 3X LCL = X 3X

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Control chart for number of defects per unit C/U-CHART

1. Compute the mean nbr. of defects per unit ( C ) for all samples: C = Total nbr. of defects observed / Total nbr. of units sampled 2. Compute an individual standard error for each sample: SC = ( C / n)1/2 Note: n is the sample size, not the total units sampled. If n is constant, each sample has the same standard error. 3. Set 3-std.-dev. control limits: UCL = C + 3SC LCL = C 3SC

Notes:
If the sample size is constant, the chart is a C-CHART. If the sample size varies, the chart is a U-CHART. Computations are the same in either case.
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Quick reference to quality formulas

Control factors n A A2 2 2.121 1.880 3 1.732 1.023 4 1.500 0.729 5 1.342 0.577 D3 0 0 0 0 D4 3.267 2.574 2.282 2.114 d2 1.128 1.693 2.059 2.316 d3 0.853 0.888 0.880 0.864

Process capability analysis x = R / d2 Cp = (USL LSL) / 6x CpL = ( X LSL) / 3x

CpU = (USL X ) / 3x Cpk = Minimum (CpU, CpL)

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Quick reference to quality formulas (cont.)

Means and ranges UCL = X + A2R LCL = X A2R UCL = D4R LCL = D3R

Percentage defective in a sample SP = [( P (1-P ))/n]1/2 UCL = P + 3SP LCL = P 3SP Individual quality observations x = R / d2 UCL = X + 3X LCL = X 3X Number of defects per unit SC = ( C / n)1/2 UCL = C + 3SC LCL = C 3SC
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Multiplicative seasonality
The seasonal index is the expected ratio of actual data to the average for the year. Actual data / Index = Seasonally adjusted data Seasonally adjusted data x Index = Actual data

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Multiplicative seasonal adjustment

1. 2. 3. 4. Compute moving average based on length of seasonality (4 quarters or 12 months). Divide actual data by corresponding moving average. Average ratios to eliminate randomness. Compute normalization factor to adjust mean ratios so they sum to 4 (quarterly data) or 12 (monthly data).

5.
6. 7. 8.

Multiply mean ratios by normalization factor to get final seasonal indexes.

Deseasonalize data by dividing by the seasonal index. Forecast deseasonalized data. Seasonalize forecasts from step 7 to get final forecasts.
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Additive seasonality
The seasonal index is the expected difference between actual data and the average for the year. Actual data - Index = Seasonally adjusted data

Seasonally adjusted data + Index = Actual data

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Additive seasonal adjustment

1. Compute moving average based on length of seasonality (4 quarters or 12 months).

2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Compute differences: Actual data - moving average.

Average differences to eliminate randomness. Compute normalization factor to adjust mean differences so they sum to zero. Compute final indexes: Mean difference normalization factor. Deseasonalize data: Actual data seasonal index. Forecast deseasonalized data. Seasonalize forecasts from step 7 to get final forecasts.
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How to start up a control chart system

1. 2. Identify quality characteristics. Choose a quality indicator.

3.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Choose the type of chart.

Decide when to sample. Choose a sample size. Collect representative data. If data are seasonal, perform seasonal adjustment. Graph the data and adjust for outliers.
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How to start up a control chart system (cont.)

9. Compute control limits 10. Investigate and adjust special-cause variation. 11. Divide data into two samples and test stability of limits.

12. If data are variables, perform a process capability study: a. Estimate the population standard deviation. b. Estimate natural tolerance. c. Compute process capability indices. d. Check individual observations against specifications.
13. Return to step 1.
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