POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

Property of the power system that
enables it to

remain in state of operating

equilibrium under normal condition

regain an acceptable state of

equilibrium after being subjected to a
disturbance
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
Traditionally,
Stability maintaining synchronism
Power System rely on Syn. M/cs for electricity generation

Therefore, maintaining Synchronism is major condition for

stable operation

Thus, stability of system is affected by

Dynamics of generator rotor angle Equation of motion
Power angle relationship Relationship of electrical
quantities.

Stability can also be lost without loss of synchronism. Eg-

Voltage instability, where voltages keeps on sinking with
operator not able to arrest it.
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

Steady State Stability

Check using load flow evaluation

across transmission lines (<< 30deg)
Bus Voltages (0.95 < V < 1.05)
Generator, Tr. Lines, Transformers, within specified P,Q,V,I

Also do incremental changes around operating points to

ascertain the sensitivities.
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

Transient Stability

Check for major disturbances

Loss of generators
faults
Line switching
Load shedding

Objectives to ascertain the machines return to new

steady state power angles

First Swing stability (t << 1.0 Secs)

assumptions Pm, Eq const., DC offsets & harmonics are
ignored

Multi-swing stability (t >> 1.0 secs)

Then details of governors, excitation systems have to be
included)
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

Dynamic Stability

Extends from few secs to few minutes

Effects also include

Governors

Exciters

LTC transformers
Dispatch/SCADA controls

Interactions of above control elements can destabilize

system even though it is stable under transient
conditions.
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
Evaluation of stability concerns behavior of
system when subjected to DISTURBANCE

Small disturbances in form of load changes

Large disturbance loss of line, unit etc.

Faults of various types

System response to disturbance involves many
equipment, a fault on line and its subsequent
loss causes variations in

Power flow Generator controls

Speed actuate governors, changes in load

Voltages actuate AVRs, Load changes

7
Occurrences of Events Following Disturbance
Occurrences of Events Following Disturbance
Synchronous Machines
Synchronous Machines
Synchronous M/cs have two essential elements

Field Wdg normally provided on Rotor

Excited by DC, when driven by prime mover establishes
rotating magnetic field
This induces AC voltages in Armature wdg whose frequency
and magnitude would depend on the speed

Armature Wdg. normally provided on Stator

Spatial arrangement is such that the AC current flowing
through it produces rotating magnetic field
The above fields interacts and due to tendency to align with
each other electro-mechanical torque is produced.
In generator this torque opposes the rotor, so mech. Input
must be applied to sustain rotation.
Under steady state, there is an angular separation between
these fields though they are rotating at same speed
Synchronous Machines
Synchronous Machines
Stability is a condition of Equilibrium bet opposing forces
Restoring forces Acc or De-Acc forces
Under Equilibrium, input mechanical torque = Output
Electrical torque and speed is constant.
Under Disturbance, equilibrium is upset causing acc
n
or
deacc
n
of rotor according to laws of motion.
Machine running at higher speed tends to share more
load and hence increasing angular separation.
Beyond certain limit, increase in ang. sep. reduces
electrical output hence leading to instability.
TRANSFER OF ACTIVE & REACTIVE POWER
TRANSFER OF ACTIVE & REACTIVE POWER
S R Line
Es Er 0

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

+

+

X
Er ErEsCos
j
X
ErEsSin
X
jEr EsSin jEsCos
Er
jX
Er jEsSin EsCos
Er
jX
Er jEsSin EsCos
Er
I Er jQr Sr
2
*
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
Pr




For small values of , sin( )=

Cos( )=1
X
Er Es Es
Qs
X
Er Es Er
Qr
X
EsEr
) (
) (
Pr

P & are closely coupled
Q & V are Closely coupled
Steady State Stability
Steady State Stability
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Too high Pm
OK Pm
Pemax= Eg*Em/X
For steady State stability Pm <<< Pe(max)
As Pe(max) coresponds to =90,
therefore, objective is to keep <<< 90
To increase stability

Increase Eg, Em
Reduce X thorough measures like
Parallel lines

Series compensation

Even Shunt capacitors also helps

jX/2
jX/2
jXc
Transfer Imp = j (X X
2
/4Xc)
12

Under steady State Pm = Pe, Tm = Te but for

Loss of line, fault, load etc reduces Pe while Pm stays constant, Pacc=Pm-
Pe would accelerate the rotor

Loss of generator makes Pe > Pm, Pacc=Pe-Pm would deaccelerate the

other generators in the system

Oscillations of machines with respect to each other is called

SWING
Transient Stability
Transient Stability
Tm
W
rm
BW
rm
Governor
Exciters
Te
13

Adding Details of Model

Governor - measures frequency and increases Pm if f << 50 Hz & vice

versa

Exciters Measures Vt and increases If if Vt << 1.0 pu & vice versa

PSS

Fast Valving

SPR

Switched Capacitors SVC, TCSC etc

To increase Transient stability

Make generators with large value of H

Reduce Pm during faults (fast valving, governors )

Transient Stability
Transient Stability
14

To ascertain how a disturbance affects one particular M/c, rest of

the system can be approximated as a reduced dynamic equivalent
Transient Stability
Transient Stability
E
q
E
TH
jX
d
jX
TH
I
V
t

In a time window of t << 1 Secs

Pm=const and
Pe=(EqEth/X)*Sin
2
2
t
M P P P
e m a

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
s n

From s,

if increase d
2
/dt
2
< 0 (Pm<Pe)
decreases

if decreases d
2
/dt
2
> 0
(Pm>Pe) increases
15

How do we know if swings past 3 ?

Solution lies in solving Swing equation

Transient Stability
Transient Stability

For t=0+ Rotor accelerates

Reaches t2

Deceleration starts

Oscillates about t2

No chance to maintain stability

of swings past 3
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
1 4 2 3
Pm2
Pm1
16
Swing Equation
Swing Equation
Equal Area Criteria
For the simple system, solution of swing
equation is not necessary

For stable operation, speed (time derivative of

angle) must be bounded say between

This requires speed to reach zero after

disturbance

Thus criteria for stable operation is

,
_

0
2
2
* 2 ,
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
a
a
a a
o i a
P
M t
t M
P
t t
M
P
t t M
P
t
or
P P
t
M P
0
0

a
P
17
POWER - ANGLE CURVE
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
a
b
c
d
e
f
Response during a short Circuit Fault
Elementary View of Transient stability
Elementary View of Transient stability
Pre-Fault
Post Fault
On Fault
18
POWER - ANGLE CURVE
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
a
b
c
d
e
f
Response during a short Circuit Fault
Elementary View of Transient stability
Elementary View of Transient stability
Pre-Fault
Post Fault
On Fault
19
FACTORS INFLUENCING TRANSIENT
FACTORS INFLUENCING TRANSIENT
STABILITY
STABILITY

How heavily Generator is loaded

The generator output during fault

The fault clearing time

The post fault transmission system X

The generator X, (low X, more P

consequently low initial rotor angle

The generator H, (High H, slower rate of

change of rotor angle consequently, lesser
energy gained during fault)

The generator internal voltage (E), depends on

field excitation.
20
Transient Stability Criteria
Transient Stability Criteria

Contingency of Outage of Single largest unit in

the system

SLG fault on transmission line close to bus

765 kV line - Temporary SLG fault

(SPS of faulted phase in 100 msecs & sucessful reclosure ;
dead time 1 secs)

400 kV S/c line - Permanent SLG fault

(SPS of faulted phase in 100 msecs & un-sucessful reclosure
followed by 3 phas opening in 100 msecs ; dead time 1 secs)

400 kV D/c line - Permanent SLG fault when

both circuits are in service and Temporary
SLG fault when one of the circuit is out.
21
Transient Stability Criteria
Transient Stability Criteria

220 and 132 kV Network - 3 phase fault with

fault clearing time of 160 Msecs, 8 Cycles.

Fault in convertor station resulting in permanent

outage of one pole.
22
STABILITY STUDIES SIMULATION
STABILITY STUDIES SIMULATION

The network and pre-disturbance data is taken

from Load flow file

Generators in dynamic situation can no longer

be represented as PV,

Generator should be represented by a thevnin

Source in series with sub-transient reactance

Loads : No longer be treated as constant PQ,

they should be combination of constant current
and admittance

No swing bus necessary as the solution does

not calculates network voltages with respect to
slack bus
23
Guide lines for checking Generators
Guide lines for checking Generators
Dynamic Data
Dynamic Data

Reactance, Time constants, Saturation data and

Inertia Constant values are important in
determining

Initial condition of Generator

Subsequent iteration during simulation

Xd > Xq > Xq > Xd > Xd > X
L

Xd > 0.5 * Xd

1 < Td0 < 10

S(1.0) < S(1.2)

1 < H < 10
24
Typical values Generators Dynamic Data
Typical values Generators Dynamic Data
Round Rotor Salient Pole
(Thermal) (Hydro)
Xq 96 % 75%
Xd 15 % 35 %
Xq 25 % -
Xd=Xq 11% 25%
X
L
5% 10%
Td0 5 Secs 5 Secs
Td0 0.05 Secs 0.05 Secs
VOLTAGE STABILITY
VOLTAGE STABILITY

Ability of the power system to Maintain acceptable

voltages at all the buses under condition steady State
and after being subjected to disturbances

Drop of voltages in rotor angle instability is one of the

effect while in Voltage Stability loss of voltages is the
heart of the problem.

System enters state of Voltage instability causes a

progressive and uncontrollable decline of voltages.

The main cause of Voltage Instability is the inability of the

system to maintain reactive power balance
VOLTAGE STABILITY
VOLTAGE STABILITY

Problem of Voltage Instability is associated with

the transfer of ACTIVE & REACTIVE POWER
over a HIGHLY INDUCTIVE NETWORK.

Stability problems occur in a HEAVILY

STRESSED NETWORK with primary underlying
INHERENT WEAKNESS in the system
TRANSFER OF ACTIVE & REACTIVE POWER
TRANSFER OF ACTIVE & REACTIVE POWER
S R Line
Es Er 0

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

+

+

X
Er ErEsCos
j
X
ErEsSin
X
jEr EsSin jEsCos
Er
jX
Er jEsSin EsCos
Er
jX
Er jEsSin EsCos
Er
I Er jQr Sr
2
*
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
Pr




For small values of , sin( )=

Cos( )=1
X
Er Es Es
Qs
X
Er Es Er
Qr
X
EsEr
) (
) (
Pr

P & are closely coupled
Q & V are Closely coupled

400 kV Tr. line of 200 kms (X=0.04 pu)

transferring power

Say voltage gradient of 10% is maintained

Es = 400 kV (1.0 pu) Er = 360 kV (0.9 pu)

For such a substantial gradient we might

expect large reactive power transfer
TRANSFER OF ACTIVE & REACTIVE POWER
TRANSFER OF ACTIVE & REACTIVE POWER
X X
Qr
X X
Qs
Cos
03 . 0 9 . 0 866 . 0 9 . 0 1
22 . 0 866 . 0 9 . 0 1 1
866 . 0 ) 30 (
2
2

Transmission line has become sink of

Reactive power

For eg. Assume Es = 400 kV (1.0 pu)

Er = 360 kV (0.9 pu)
Line length = 200 kms (X=0.04 pu)
TRANSFER OF ACTIVE & REACTIVE POWER
TRANSFER OF ACTIVE & REACTIVE POWER

P Qs Qr
15 582 327 148
25 950 461 14
30 1124 551 -76
35 1290 657 -182

Reactive just cannot be transmitted over

large power angles even with substantial
voltage gradients

Therefore, the reactive power transfer needs

to be minimized as it causes

Substantial voltage drop from sending end to

receiving end.

Increased losses

High dynamic over voltage

TRANSFER OF ACTIVE & REACTIVE POWER
TRANSFER OF ACTIVE & REACTIVE POWER
V
X
j
V
Qr X
V
V
jQr
jX V I jX V Eth
Pr
0
Pr
0

+ +
S Load Line
Eth

V 0
The voltage term in
phase with voltage
depends on Q
FACTORS INFLUENCING VOLTAGE
FACTORS INFLUENCING VOLTAGE
STABILITY
STABILITY

Generator reactive power and voltage control

limitations.

Load Characteristics

Distribution System Voltage regulators; tap

changers

Characteristics of power compensating devices

PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF VOLTAGE
PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF VOLTAGE
STABILITY
STABILITY

When a power system is subjected to sudden

increase of reactive power demand following
contingency

The additional demand is met thru reactive power

reserves carried by Generators and compensators

Generally there is sufficient VAR reserves and

system settles to a stable voltage level.

However, if it does not then additional demand may

lead to voltage collapse.
33
Concepts of Feedback Control System
Concepts of Feedback Control System
C= GcGp R + Gp u
(1+GcGpH) (1+GcGpH)
Feedback

Reduces the effect of disturbances & drifts in the

steady state

Causes rapid response to

Changes in reference

Counteract the effects of load disturbances

Gp
H
R
C
Gc
u
m
-
+
-
+
34
Closed Loop & Open Loop time responses
Closed Loop & Open Loop time responses
Closed Loop Shortens the time constant and
thereby speeds up the response
1
(1+sTo
V
ref
e
t
K

Efd
-
+
) 1 (
'
) 1 (
1
K
sTdo
K
K
GH
G
V
e
ref
t
+
+ +

Efd
e
t
V
ref
e
t

Efd
Open Loop
Closed Loop
35
Response of Second Order System
Response of Second Order System
Nature of the response can be derived from roots of
characteristics eqn 1+GH=0
1
(1+sTo
V
ref
e
t

Efd
-
+
K
(1+sTe

'

+
+
+
+
+ +

) 1 (
' 0
) 1 (
' 0
1 ) 1 (
2
K
TeTd
s
K
Td Te
K
K
V
e
ref
t
2
0
2
0
2
1

s
s + +
' 0
) 1 (
0
TeTd
K +

' 0 ) 1 ( 2
' 0
TeTd K
Td Te
+
+

{ }
2
0
1 2 , 1 t s s
36

Damping ration of = 1 (critical damping),

yields two equal real roots

< 1 complex roots (oscillatory response)

> 1 Real roots (Non-oscillatory response)

Higher the value of K, higher will be natural

frequency and lower will be the damping ratio

Second order system of this type can not have

real roots and hence cannot be unstable.

However, as t 0, sustained oscillations will be

exhibited which is an unacceptable
performance.
Closed Loop & Open Loop time responses
Closed Loop & Open Loop time responses
37

Closed Loop Performance for different values of

damping ratio.
Effect of Damping Ratio
Effect of Damping Ratio
=1.4
=0.20
=0.80
=1.0
38
Control Theory - Basics
Control Theory - Basics

Objectives are the response should be

Fast

Damped i.e. stable

The asymptotic response of K/(1+sT) on Log-log

scale
1/T 100 1000
1.0
10
-45
0
-90
1
0.1
0
39
Response of Closed Loop System
Response of Closed Loop System

Open loop response

Cross over frequency freq at which gain=1

Phase margin 180 - phase lag at cross

over frequency

Control theory shows that the closed loop is

stable if open loop response has positive phase
margin.
G
H
Input
Output
40
Response of Closed Loop System
Response of Closed Loop System

m
> 80
o
45

<
m
<
80
o
0

<
m
<
45
o
O
u
t
p
u
t
O
u
t
p
u
t
O
u
t
p
u
t
Time Time Time
Closed loop response to a 1 p.u. step input
41
Excitor Tuning
Excitor Tuning

For voltage control purposes the closed response in the range of 1

secs is desired, i.e. the crossover frequency (Fc) should be above
(1/Tdo)
This means, from the start, there is a phase lag of 90
o
due to
field winding and there is very little room for excitor phase lag at
crossover frequency.
Objectives of Excitor Tuning are
Provide high enough Fc as speed of response is inversely
proportional to Fc
Have minimum phase lag at Fc to have stable system
Provide enough steady state gain so that voltage error from
no load to full load is of the order of 1%
Excitor
Input Eterm
1/(1+sTdo)
Efd
-
+
Terminal
Voltage
Field
Voltage
Error
Signal
Tdo ~ 510 Secs
42
Excitor Tuning
Excitor Tuning

Highest possible Fc

For damped response Fc should be

less than (1/Te) lets take (1/2Te)
Ke/(1/sTe)
Input Eterm
1/(1+sTdo)
Efd
-
+
Terminal
Voltage
Field
Voltage
Error
Signal

c
1

c

Ke
1
1/Tdo
Gain=1
1/Te
Log Ke Log 1 = log wc log (1/Tdo)
Log Ke = Log (1/2Te) Log (1/Tdo)
Ke < Tdo/2Te
43
Excitor Tuning
Excitor Tuning
For typical values, Te = 0.05 and Tdo = 5 Secs
Ke << 50
With this value of gain, whats the steady state response,
Eterm = Ke(Vref Eterm) = Ke Vref Ke Eterm
(1+Ke) Eterm = Ke Vref
Eterm = {Ke/(1+Ke)}*Vref
Thus, Ke/(1+Ke) measures how closely, terminal voltage follows the
reference voltage once all the transient has died down.
For Ke=50, the voltage regulation {1- Ke/1+Ke)} is 2%, a poor
performance
However, Tdo, Te and ke are related to equipment size and
characteristics, hence not easily modifiable.
There is a way out to use Lag lead filter
44
Excitor Tuning
Excitor Tuning
Log Ke Log k = log (1/T1) Log (1/T2)

k/Ke = T1/T2
However, (1/T1) <<< Fc
(1+sT1)
(1+sT2)
Ke
(1+sTe)
1
(1+sTdo)
1/
1

Ke
1/T2
c
k
For Te = 0.05 Secs, Fc should be less than (1/2Te) = 10 rad/secs
Therefore, 1/T1 = 1/10*Fc = 1 rad/secs
T2 >>> T1, say 10 Secs
This would give steady state gain of 500 and better regulation.
45
Excitor Tuning Procedure
Excitor Tuning Procedure
a) Calculate maximum transient gain k=Tdo/2Te
b) Calculate necessary transient gain TGR = k/Ke
c) Calculate expected crossover frequency Fc = 1/2Te
d) Choose 1/T1, 10 times smaller than Fc
e) Choose T2 using TGR =T1/T2 i.e. T2=T1/TGR
46
Numerical Instability
Consider simple first order integration formulae applied to simple differential
equation which describes discharge of capacitor through a resistor.

q
new
= q
old
+

its exact solution is q(t)=q(0)

Numerical Integration process, however, would yield


This shows that
The sequence of q values would be decreasing monotonically if t <<< T
The sequence of q values would have alternating sign and increasing
magnitude, if t >>> T

Numerical instability will be normally avoided and accuracy of integration
process would be adequate if integration time step ( t) is about 1/4
th
to 1/5
th

of the least time constant in the process being simulated.
t
dt
dq

T
q
dt
dq

T
t
e

T
q
dt
dq
old

t
T
q
q q
old
old new

,
_

+

,
_

T
t
q q
old new
1