PRECISION AGRICULTURE

PRT 4002

PRT 4002
PRECISION AGRICULTURE

Dr. Anuar Abd. Rahim C 103 Jabatan Pengurusan Tanah Email: anuar@agri.upm.edu.my

Tel: 03-89466963 0122678842

PRT 4002

Semester 2 2004/05

LECTURE Tuesday & Thursday 2.00 pm BSP3

LAB. Friday 2.00 5.00 pm JPTH A105

COURSE EVALUATION

TESTS ASSIGNMENTS

20% 40% 40%

FINAL EXAM

TESTS

TEST 1

31st Disember 2004

TEST 2

04th March 2005

Di akhir kursus pelajar akan dapat memahami konsep, prinsip dan teknik dalam pertanian persis dan proses pembentukan sistem sokongan bagi membuat keputusan dalam pengurusan ladang

Holistic approach to micro manage agricultural landscapes based on information, knowledge, and new technologies

Computer and sensors revolution for production agriculture, based on the concept that agricultural field are subjected to infield variation and require varying methods of crop management on specific location in the field

Use of high-tech equipment of assessing field conditions and applying inputs through the use of technology of satellite positioning systems, electronic sensors, controllers and sophisticated softwares

An emerging, state of the art technology that allows farmers to adjust for infield variability

Managing each crop production input on a site specific basis to reduce waste, increase profits, and maintain the quality of the environment

Components of Precision Agriculture

Spatial Referring Crop and Soil Monitoring Spatial Prediction and Mapping Decision Support Differential Action

Technologies in Precision Agriculture

Remote Sensing Geographical Information System Global Positioning System Variable Rate Sensors

Remote Sensing

Yield Variability

Due to:

Environmental Factors Crop Factors Soil Factors

Quantifying Variability

GEOSTATISTICS SENSORS

a branch of applied statistics that quantifies the spatial dependence and spatial structure of a measured property and in turn uses that spatial structure to predict values of the property at unsampled locations

GEOSTATISTICS
Sampling Variogram Intepolasi

JUDGEMENTAL SIMPLE RANDOM STRATIFIED RANDOM SYSTEMATIC STRATIFIED SYSTEMATIC UNALIGNED TARGETED OR DIRECTED ADAPTIVE GEOSTATISTICAL

N = (t2S2)/d2
t - is the tabulated value of students t for two sided confidence interval at a given probability level S is a preliminary estimate for the standard deviation of the population d is the deviation desired between the population mean and the measured mean

GEOSTATISTICS
Two main steps :

1. Spatial modeling (variography)

2. Spatial interpolation (kriging)

Spatial dependence can be quantified and modeled using semivariogram

Sill

Range

INTERPOLATION
a procedure for predicting unknown values of neighbouring location Methods: o Nearest neighbour o Local average o Inverse distance weighting o Contouring o Kriging

Veris EC sensor system

Veris EC sensor system

Veris EC Probe

With the aid of a hand held GPS, choose an area of size more than one hectare and produce it on a map.

Insert as much information as you can on the map.

Prepare the area for geostatistical sampling, semivariogram and kriging.

Component of Veris EC sensor System

Veris EC Probe

GPS Antenna Data Logger GPS Receiver

Comparison Soil EC and Corn Yield

(Source: Boydell et al., 1999)

(Source: Veris Tech. 1999)

METHOD OF IDENTIFYING AND RECORDING LOCATION OF AN OBJECT OR PERSON

Types:
 land-based triangulation  satelite-base ranging

a satelite-based navigation system

 space segment  control segment  user segment

GPS ACCURACY AND FACTORS AFFECTING IT

Satellite clocks Sateliite orbits Earths atmosphere Multipath errors GPS receivers Selective availability

DIFFERENTIAL GPS (DGPS)

o DGPS works by canceling out most of the natural and man-made errors that creep into normal GPS measurements o DGPS involves cooperation between two receivers, one that wanders around and another that is stationery o Stationery receiver is the key to the accuracy of DGPS. It ties all the satellite measurements into a solid local reference

Geographic Information System (GIS)

GIS involves collection, entering, storing, manipulating and displaying data OR GIS is an information system specially designed for handling geographic, locational or spatial information

Objectives of GIS
Cost reduction - Eliminating duplication of data maintenance and update - Data sharing within organization and better processing methods Better decision making - Improvement in data quality - Data is more and easily accessible Revenue improvement - Acquisition of detail and comprehensive data

Types of GIS Low end GIS -Desk top GIS or desk top mapping
- Run on PCs - For simple GIS applications - Software: MAPINFO or ARCVIEW or ATLASGIS or WINGIS - Less expensive

High end GIS

- Involves workstation
- More complex - Run on unix platform - Many modules for a variety of applications - Software: SMALLWORLD or ARCINFO or GENASYS - More expensive

Sources of geographic data

Field observations, survey etc. Printed maps Printed reports Sensors (eg. in satellites, aircrafts) Data loggers of various kinds Analytical stereo-plotters Digital tape discs with text or graphic files

Components of GIS (Hardwares)

The CPU (computer) - Microcomputers (PC) - Minicomputers - Mainframes - Workstations Secondary storage - CD-ROM and related optical storage technology - Discs - Magnetic tapes

 Input devices
- Digitizers or scanners - Keyboard - Plus secondary storage devices

Output devices
- Line plotters - Film recorders - Plotters - Monochromes (coloured monitors) - Plus secondary storage devices

Digital mapping
The technique of using digital computer to produce maps from spatial data in numerical form Digital features - Objects of interest in digital mapping - Feature: any item on earths surface relevant for a task or project - Example, Map of UPM: Buildings, roads, recreational zones etc.

Digital mapping
Features can be grouped in to classes E.g. Buildings: Academic complex Administrative block Residential zone The basic elements grouped as coverage features are: - Polygon - Label point - Annotation - Node etc.

Processes of digital mapping

Data capture or acquisition - Feasibility study and analysis - Manuscript preparation - Features and features analysis - Feature property - Position - Attributes - Topology - Digitization - Manual (attributes through keyboard) - Semi-automatic (laser beams to trace lines) - Automatic (scanning or sensing device)

 Data processing

- Editing to remove error

- Transformation - Format conversions (raster to vector) - Checking for topological structure or building topological structure Simplification Data presentation - Electronic - Hardcopy

GIS data formats Raster format - The space is divided into cells, usually squares, located by coordinates - Each cell is addressed by the row and column it occupies Advantages - Faster to make, occupies less space (size), most printers can make this format Disadvantages - Gives no accurate information, has no magnitude and direction - Does not define the position of points by using a nearly continuous coordinate and direction

Vector format - The basic units for storing and displaying are points, lines or polygon for creating objects on a map Advantages - Gives detail, correct and geo-referenced information - Good for many grid sampling points - Defines position of points by using a nearly continuous coordinate system - Shows both magnitude and direction Disadvantages - Occupies a lot of space (size) - Creating object with this format relatively takes time because it is detail - Not every printer is compatible with this format

raster precision in graphics traditional cartography data volume topology computation update continuous space integration discontinuous

vector

x x x x x x x x x

The power of GIS Able to process huge data (e.g. GPS readings or remotely sensed data) into layers of maps showing specific relationships that assists in fixing a problem (e.g. precision farming) Example Soil pH, organic matter, nutrients, soil moisture etc. in layer forms can be linked with yield of a crop to establish the cause (s) of poor yield, moderate yield or good yield in an area

Remote sensing (RS) A group of techniques for collecting information about an object or an area without being in physical contact with that object or area Distance from sensor to object or area being sensed can range from a few meters to thousands of kilometers

What is REMOTE SENSING ?

Source of Force Field Sensor System eg. Camera

DATA ACQUISITION
Reflection

Resulting RS Data Set e.g.. Image

Object (generic)

What is REMOTE SENSING ?

Remote Sensing (LookLook, No Touch) is a much wider field than we will Medical Imaging discuss in this lecture. We will concentrate on that part of RS dealing with EARTH LAND RESOURCES

Vision

Sound and Radio Wave Detection

 Methods for data collection - Aircraft based sensors or - Satellite based sensors - Examples of RS data - Maps showing cloud coverage of a place - Maps showing forest burn of a place - Maps showing vegetation of an area - Maps showing precipitation of a place

 Uses of RS data

- Agricultural soil survey - Agricultural crop survey - Urban and industrial land use planning - Military surveillance - Navigation - Flood prediction etc.

Advantages of using RS in Agriculture Covers large area rapidly and repeatedly Can be used throughout growing season Gives more timely information on crop condition Helps to identify potential problems before damage becomes irreversible in terms of crop yield and quality

Basics of RS

Involves the measurement of energy that is reflected or emitted from objects without coming into contact with the objects

The electromagnetic spectrum Ultraviolet (uv) rays (0.1 m) Visible (1 m) - Violet (0.3 m) - Blue (0.3m) - Green (0.5 m) - Yellow (0.6 m) - Orange (0.7 m) - Red (0.8 m)

 Infrared (10 m-1mm)

- Near red ((10 m)
- Thermal (0.1 mm) - Far red (10 mm) Micro waves Radio waves

How objects interact with electromagnetic energy

When electromagnetic radiation (e.g. sunlight) strikes an object (e.g. plant) the 3 things that can happen to this energy are: - Reflection - Transmission - Absorption

RS systems Active sensing systems - They generate a signal, bounce it off an object and measure the characteristics of the reflected signal Example: Radar (radio direction and ranging) - Radio waves are sent out by a transmitter and picked by a receiver after having been reflected by an object

Uses of the reflected signals Can be used by radar systems to determine the distance and direction of a sensed object Can be used to create images of sensed object Can be used to monitor crop moisture status (works even in cloudy conditions)

Passive sensing system The systems receive naturally-emitted and reflected signals from sensed objects to create images useful to agriculture

Measures of performance of RS systems Spatial resolution - Refers to the size of the smallest object that can be
distinguished in an image produced by RS Examples: - Should be able to distinguish one plant from another - Should be able to distinguish row from another - should be able to distinguish one plot from another

 Spectral response Refers to the ability of a sensing system to respond to, and collect radiation measurements within a particular spectral band Examples: - Near infrared band can give information about soil organic matter content and moisture content - The visible range can give information like greenness or yellowness of a plant

 Spectral resolution
- Refers to the ability of a sensing system to distinguish

between electromagnetic radiation of different wavelengths Frequency of coverage - It is the measure of how often a sensing system can be available to collect data from a particular site on the ground

RS systems platforms: - Satellite-based - Aircraft based Types of sensors used in RS platforms: - Photographic camera sensors - Electro-optical sensors

Use of RS data: Site specific purpose Collect RS data Process data and images Carefully examine images & analyze the statistical data Perform ground thru thing of the remotely sensed data Incorporate RS and ground thru thing data into a GIS Identify cause-effect relationship between measured variables and crop condition Treat the fields based on the information generated

Issues to consider in applying RS in agriculture Information developed from remotely-sensed data must be accurate Remotely-sensed data should be processed and properly formatted to ensure it integrates with GIS that are use with other precision farming data layers like yield maps

Cont. Data must be collected at appropriate times and delivered in a timely manner Use the right resolution for the right project The time taken by e.g. satellite to make an image and giving it to a customer should be short e.g. not beyond 1 or 2 days but in most cases, it takes about 2 to 3 weeks

Introduction to GIS Definition of GIS

a GIS is a system of hardware, software and procedures to facilitate the management, manipulation, analysis, modeling, representation and display of georeferenced data to solve complex problems regarding planning and management of resources (NCGIA, 1990)

Geographic information systems have emerged in the last decade

an essential tool for urban and resource planning and management

capacity to store, retrieve, analyse, model and map large areas with huge volumes of spatial data

WHAT IS GIS? a particular form of Information System applied to geographical data a System is a group of connected entities and activities which interact for a common purpose
a car is a system in which all the components operate together to provide transportation

an Information System is a set of processes, executed on raw data, to produce information which will be useful in decision-making
a chain of steps leads from observation and collection of data through analysis an information system must have a full range of functions to achieve its purpose, including observation, measurement, description, explanation, forecasting, decision-making

 uses geographically referenced data as well as nonspatial data and includes operations which support spatial analysis
in GIS, the common purpose is decision-making, for managing use of land, resources, transportation, retailing, oceans or any spatially distributed entities the connection between the elements of the system is geography, e.g. location, proximity, spatial distribution

can be seen as a system of hardware, software and procedures designed to support the capture, management, manipulation, analysis, modeling and display of spatially-referenced data for solving complex planning and management problems
although many other computer programs can use spatial data (e.g. AutoCAD and statistics packages), GISs include the additional ability to perform spatial operations

WHY GIS IMPORTANT?

"GIS technology is to geographical analysis what the microscope, the telescope, and computers have been to other sciences the catalyst needed to dissolve the regionalsystematic and human- physical dichotomies and other disciplines which use spatial information GIS integrates spatial and other kinds of information within a single system and offers a consistent framework for analyzing geographical data GIS allows us to manipulate and display geographical knowledge in new and exciting ways

 GIS makes connections between activities based on geographic proximity

looking at data geographically can often suggest new insights, explanations these connections are often unrecognized without GIS, but can be vital to understanding and managing activities and resources e.g. we can link toxic waste records with school locations through geographic proximity

GIS allows access to administrative records property ownership, tax files, utility cables and pipes - via their geographical positions

MAJOR AREAS OF PRACTICAL APPLICATION

STREET network-based address matching - finding locations given street addresses vehicle routing and scheduling location analysis, site selection development of evacuation plans

NATURAL resource-based management of wild and scenic rivers, recreation resources, floodplains, wetlands, agricultural lands, aquifers, forests, wildlife Environmental impact analysis (EIA) viewshed analysis hazardous or toxic facility siting groundwater modeling and contamination tracking wildlife habitat analysis, migration routes planning

Land parcel-based
zoning, subdivision plan review land acquisition environmental impact statements water quality management maintenance of ownership

Facilities management
locating underground pipes, cables balancing loads in electrical networks planning facility maintenance tracking energy use

GIS AS A SET OF INTERRELATED SUBSYSTEM Data Processing Subsystem

data acquisition - from maps, images or field surveys data input - data must be input from source material to the digital database data storage - how often is it used, how should it be updated, is it confidential?

Data Analysis Subsystem

retrieval and analysis - may be simple responses to queries, or complex statistical analyses of large sets of data information output - how to display the results? as maps or tables? Or will the information be fed into some other digital system

Information Use Subsystem

users may be researchers, planners, managers interaction needed between GIS group and users to plan analytical procedures and data structures

Management Subsystem
organizational role - GIS section is often organized as a separate unit within a resource management agency (cf. the Computer Center at many universities) offering spatial database and analysis services staff - include System Manager, Database Manager, System Operator, System Analysts, Digitizer Operators procedures - extensive interaction is needed between the GIS group and the rest of the organization if the system is to function effectively

GIS COMPARED TO MAPS

Data Stores spatial data stored in digital format in a GIS allows for rapid access for traditional as well as innovative purposes nature of maps creates difficulties when used as sources for digital data
most GIS take no account of differences between datasets derived from maps at different scales idiosyncrasies (e.g. generalization procedures) in maps become "locked in" to the data derived from them such errors often become apparent only during later processing of digital data derived from them

Data stores (contd)

however, maps still remain an excellent way of compiling spatial information, e.g. field survey maps can be designed to be easy to convert to digital form, e.g. by the use of different colors which have distinct signatures when scanned by electronic sensors as well maps can be produced by GIS as cheap, high density stores of information for the end user however, consistent, accurate retrieval of data from maps is difficult only limited amounts of data can be shown due to constraints of the paper medium

Data indexes
this function can be performed much better by a good GIS due to the ability to provide multiple and efficient cross-referencing and searching

Data display tools

electronic display offers significant advantages over the paper map ability to browse across an area without interruption by map sheet boundaries ability to zoom and change scale freely potential for the animation of time dependent data display in "3 dimensions" (perspective views), with "realtime" rotation of viewing angle potential for continuous scales of intensity and the use of color and shading independent of the constraints of the printing process, ability to change colors as required for interpretation one of a kind, special purpose products are possible and inexpensive

THE DATA MODEL

geographical variation in the real world is infinitely complex it would take an infinitely large database to capture the real world precisely data must somehow be reduced to a finite and manageable quantity by a process of generalization or abstraction geographical variation must be represented in terms of discrete elements or objects current GISs differ according the way in which they organize reality through the data model each model tends to fit certain types of data and applications better than others the data model chosen for a particular project or application is also influenced by: the software available the training of the key individuals historical precedent there are two major choices of data model - raster and vector

geospatial data
Geospatial data has both spatial and thematic components. Conceptually, geographic data can be broken up in two elements: and. Spatial component (observation or entity)
The observations have two aspects in its localisation: absolute localisation based in a coordinates system and topological relationship referred to other observations. A GIS is able to manage both while computer assisted cartography packages only manage the absolute one.

Thematic component ( attribute or variable)

The variables or attributes can be studied considering the thematic aspect (statistics), the locational aspect (spatial analysis) or both (GIS).

digital representation of geospatial data digital versus analogue data

digital
easy to update easy and quick transfer (eg via internet) storage space required is relatively small (digital devices) easy to maintain easy automated analysis slow transfer (eg via post) large storage space required (e.g. traditional map libraries) paper maps disintegrate over time difficult and innacurate to analyse (e.g. to measure areas and distances)

analogue
whole map to be remade

DATA INPUT need to have tools to transform spatial data of various

types into digital format data input is a major bottleneck in application of GIS technology
costs of input often consume 80% or more of project costs data input is labor intensive, tedious, error-prone there is a danger that construction of the database may become an end in itself and the project may not move on to analysis of the data collected essential to find ways to reduce costs, maximize accuracy

DATA INPUT as possible, but: need to automate the input process as much
automated input often creates bigger editing problems later source documents (maps) may often have to be redrafted to meet rigid quality requirements of automated input

because of the costs involved, much research has gone into devising better input methods - however, few reductions in cost have been realized sharing of digital data is one way around the input bottleneck
more and more spatial data is becoming available in digital form

DATA INPUT
involves encoding both the locational and attribute data. the locational data is encoded as coordinates on a particular cartesian coordinate system
source maps may have different projections, scales several stages of data transformation may be needed to bring all data to a common coordinate system

attribute data is often obtained and stored in tables

Modes of data input

keyboard entry for non-spatial attributes and occasionally locational data manual locating devices
user directly manipulates a device whose location is recognized by the computer e.g. digitizing

automated devices
automatically extract spatial data from maps and photography e.g. scanning

conversion directly from other digital sources

THE RASTER GIS

raster model divides the entire study area into a regular grid of cells in specific sequence the conventional sequence is row by row from the top left corner each cell contains a single value is space-filling since every location in the study area corresponds to a cell in the raster one set of cells and associated values is a layer
there may be many layers in a database, e.g. soil type, elevation, land use, land cover

a raster model tells what occurs everywhere - at each place in the area conceptually, the raster models are the simplest of the available data models therefore, we begin our examination of GIS data and operations with the raster model and will consider vector models after the fundamental concepts have been introduced.

Vector GIS
vector model uses discrete line segments or points to identify locations discrete objects (boundaries, streams, cities) are formed by connecting line segments a vector model tells where everything occurs - gives a location to every object vector objects do not necessarily fill space, not all locations in space need to be referenced in the model based on vectors (as opposed to space-occupancy raster structures) fundamental primitive is a point objects are created by connecting points with straight lines
some systems allow points to be connected using arcs of circles

areas are defined by sets of lines

the term polygon is synonymous with area in vector databases because of the use of straight-line connections between points

very large vector databases have been built for different purposes
vector tends to dominate in transportation, utility, marketing applications raster and vector both used in resource management applications

VECTOR GIS
Capabilities
analysis functions with vector GIS are not quite the same as with raster GIS
more operations deal with objects measures such as area have to be calculated from coordinates of objects, instead of counting cells

some operations are more accurate

estimates of area based on polygons more accurate than counts of pixels estimates of perimeter of polygon more accurate than counting pixel boundaries on the edge of a zone

some operations are slower

e.g. overlaying layers, finding buffers

some operations are faster

e.g. finding path through road network

raster precision in graphics traditional cartography data volume topology computation update continuous space integration discontinuous

vector

x x x x x x x x x

Data bases
The elements in a vector based GIS are then the DBMS (Data Base Management System) for the attributes and the system that manages the topological data.

entity-relation model

Three elements are considered in this approach: (a) Entities as the relevant objects for the data base. In a GIS, an entity is any fact that can be localised spatially. (b) (b) Attributes or characteristics attached to the entities. Each attribute has a limited domain of possible values, i.e. the quality of a road can be bad, average, good, very good. (c) (c) Relations or mechanisms that allow to relate entities. Some examples are: located in, contained in, crossed with, etc.

Database Management System

relational data bases
data is stored in tables where rows represent the objects or entities and columns the attributes or variables. usually composed of several tables and the relations between them is possible through a common identifier that is unique for each entity.

DBMS contd
The advantages of using this kind of data base are The design is based in a methodology with heavy theoretical basis, which offers confidence in its capacity to evolve. It is very easy to implement it, specially in comparison with other models such as hierarchical, network, and object oriented It is very flexible. New tables can be appended easily. Contains query languages (like SQL) which makes easy to include this tool in a GIS.

object oriented data bases

Based on objects, it can be defined as an entity with a localization represented by values and by a group of operations. the advantage in comparison with relational data bases is based on the inclusion, in the definition of an object, not only its attributes but also the methods or operations that act on this object. In addition, the objects belong to classes that can have their own variables and these classes can belong to super-classes.

VECTOR ANALYSIS
GIS Overlay Concepts Cartographic Modelling and GIS Introduction to Overlay in GIS Topological Map Overlay Boolean Logic in GIS GIS Overlay Operations Vector based GIS Overlay Classification of Vector Overlay Operations

Cartographic Modelling and GIS

well-defined methodology that is used to address diverse applications of GIS in a clear manner. It is a technique used for both vector and raster based GIS, and as the term suggests, cartographic modelling involves models (ie. of geospatial information) represented in cartographic form (ie. as Maps). used to simultaneously analyse both the spatial and thematic characteristics of geospatial information. The thematic component of geospatial information is analysed via statistical operations on the data where the spatial characteristics of geospatial information are described through spatial analysis techniques (which are based on coordinate data).

Introduction to Overlay in GIS

Used to perform a number of fundamental spatial analysis operations, such operations can use any number of analytical processes. Six fundamental operations: Topological Map Overlay, Buffer Generation, Feature Extraction, Feature Merging, and the two relational database operations - Join and Relate. The main aim of this module is to clearly define and present the concepts and algorithms associated with topological map overlay processes, specifically in reference to vector based systems.

Topological Map Overlay

Creates new features and attribute relations by overlaying the features from two input map layers. Features from each input layer are combined to create new output features. Attributes of each input feature are combined from the two input layers to describe each new output feature, thus creating new attribute relationships. Manipulation of multiple data layers is required to achieve the objective of the overlay operation. This is done in a stepwise fashion - two input layers are combined to form an intermediate layer, this intermediate layer is then combined with a third layer to form another intermediate layer, and so forth until the desired resultant map layer is achieved.

Boolean Logic in GIS

Useful for performing operations on the attributes attached to geographic entities in a GIS. Boolean Logic is especially useful in computing (or modelling) new attributes in topological overlay processing for both vector and raster based systems, as they can be applied to all data types, be they Boolean, Ratio, Interval, Ordinal, or Nominal. Boolean algebra uses the logical operators AND, OR, NOT to determine whether a particular condition is true or false. Each attribute can be thought of as defining a set. Consider two sets (set A and set B).

 The AND operator is the intersection of two sets - for example those entities that belong to both set A and set B ( A AND B) The OR operator is the union of two sets for example those entities that belong to either set A or to set B ( A OR B) The NOT operator is the difference operator identifying those entities that belong to A but not B ( A NOT B)

Contd

Contd
These simple relations can be visualised through the use of Venn diagrams.

Vector based GIS Overlay

Overlay operations are much more complex than in a raster-based system, because the topological data is stored as points, lines and/or polygons. This requires relatively complex geometrical operations to derive the intersected polygons, and the necessary creation of new nodes (points) and arcs (lines), with their combined attribute values. Allow the polygon features of one layer to be overlaid on the polygon, point, or line features of another layer depending on the objectives of the Overlay operation

Classification of Vector Overlay Operations

Classified via two methods:

Through the elements contained in the layers to be overlaid (ie. whether the layers contain point, line or polygon elements), or By operation type (for example; the user wants to generate a layer comprising of the Union, Intersection, or some other boolean operation of the two input layers).

Contd
The following table identifies which overlay options exist for each possible combination of element types contained in the two input layers.
Input layer element types

Points
Points Coincide Point in Line Point in Polygon

Lines
Point int Line Line Intersection Line in Polygon

Polygons
Point in Polygon Line in Polygon Polygon Overlay

Points Lines Polygons

Contd
Complex databases such as GIS classify vector overlay operations via method two, where the particular overlay operation a user wishes to perform defines which element types may be contained in the two input layers.

 Three following processing algorithms are fundamental: Point-in-Polygon Line-in-Polygon Polygon-on-Polygon

VECTOR OVERLAY PROCESSING ALGORITHMS

Point-in-Polygon Processing.
Point features of one input layer can be overlaid on polygon features of another input layer Identify the polygon within which each point falls. The result of a Point-in-Polygon overlay is a set of points with additional attributes

Line-in-Polygon Processing.
Polygon features of one input layer can be overlaid on lines (arcs) of another input layer. A line can be made up of many segments, Line-in-Polygon analyses therefore identifies which polygon (if any) contains each line or line segment. The result of a Line-in-Polygon overlay is a new layer containing lines with additional attributes Sometimes a line segment falls directly on a polygon boundary instead of within the polygon. In this special case, the additional line attributes will contain the attributes of both polygons - lying to the left and right sides of the line.

Polygon-on-Polygon Processing.
This process merges overlapping polygons from two input layers to create new polygons in an output layer. The result of a Polygon-on-Polygon overlay is an output layer containing new polygons with merged attributes

Raster Spatial Analysis Specific Theory

Spatial resampling Spatial resampling involves the use of algorithms for changing grid cell resolutions and/or changing cell boundaries. The resample function in a GIS assigns values to new cells based on the input grid cell values using resampling techniques.

Contd

cont.d
These three techniques are: Nearest neighbour Bilinear interpolation Cubic

The nearest neighbour

method matches the output cell centre to the nearest input cell centre and transfers the input cell value. This method is appropriate for discrete data, and in some situations for continuous data. It is used primarily for categorical data such as a land use classification, as it will not change the values of the cells. The maximum spatial error will be one half of the cell size.

Contd

Bilinear Interpolation
determines the output cell value with a weighted distance average of the four nearest input cell centres. This method is appropriate for continuous data, but not for discrete data because values are averaged, and hence the cell values may be altered. If the input grid is integer, the output values are truncated to integer. This option will cause some smoothing of the data.

Contd

Cubic
is similar to bilinear interpolation, except that the nearest 16 cells are used. Like bilinear, cubic is appropriate for continuous data, but not for discrete data. This technique will generate a slightly sharper grid than through bilinear interpolation. The grid will be geometrically less distorted than the grid achieved by running the nearest neighbour resampling algorithm.

Mosaic
Commonly used in raster GIS and remote sensing when two or more neighbouring raster layers must be joined into a larger unit. For example, multiple mapsheets that have been converted to digital elevation models can be combined into a single layer using mosaicing. uses resampling algorithms as new grid cell values are calculated where the maps join or overlap at the edges. Hence mosaicing can be performed using nearest neighbour, bilinear or cubic techniques depending on the scale of measurement of the input data.

Reclassification
generalisation technique used to re-assign values in an input them to create a new input theme. Reclassification changes the value of the input cells using a remap table on a cell-by-cell basis within the area under analysis. commonly used to convert interval and ratio scale data into an ordinal rankings for suitability modelling using map algebra. Simple classifications are often made so that continuously varying spatial properties such as population density can be displayed in easy-to-understand maps.

Slicing
Slicing is a global function similar to reclassification, however it uses statistical measures to subdivide the region from interval/ratio scales to ordinal rankings. There are two different approaches to slicing: equal interval and equal area.

Equal area
means that the input values will be divided into n zones with each zone having a similar number of cells, i.e. so that each zone represents a similar amount of area.

equal interval
slice determines the range of the input values and then divides the range into n zones.

Zonal Operations
sometimes called region operations or region functions. commonly use zonal operations as a potential problem exists when we wish to analyse raster data that is not actually the shape of an individual grid cell. For example, neighbourhood operations define their area of interest as a function of individual grid cells. With zonal operations we can analyse spatial definitions of regions by clustering similar or like cell values into homogenous regions.

Digital elevation model (DEM)

The earths surface is a continuous phenomena. Digital elevation models are used as a way of representing surfaces. A DEM is a quantitative model of a topographic surface in digital form. It refer to any digital representation of a topographic surface, however, most often it is used to refer specifically to a raster or regular grid of spot heights. The resolution, or the distance between adjacent grid points, is a critical parameter of any DEM. The best resolution commonly available is 30 m. The data sets should be visualized as continuous surfaces. The operators we will discuss here are designed to work on any continuous surface e.g. map elevations, temperature gradients, or cost surfaces.

Digital data

Elevation map

Gridded DEM

TIN model

slope
Slope is normally expressed in planning as a percent slope which is the tangent (slope) multiplied by 100 % Slope = Height / Base * 100 Deg Slope = ArcTan (Height / Base)

Slope map

aspect
Aspect is calculated using the northsouth and east-west gradients as expressed using the following equation: Aspect = ArcTangent (dEW/dNS)

What is REMOTE SENSING ?

REMOTE SENSING includes all methods and techniques used to gain qualitative and quantitative information about distant objects without coming into direct contact with these objects.
Landsat TM Near IR Band

Look-Look, NO Touch

What is REMOTE SENSING ?

Remote Sensing (RS) methods try to answer four basic questions: HOW MUCH of WHAT is WHERE? What is the SHAPE and EXTENT of ... ?
Landsat TM Near IR Band (Area, Boundaries, Lineaments, ...)

Has it CHANGED?

What is REMOTE SENSING ?

HOW MUCH of WHAT is WHERE?
WHAT: Type, Characteristic and Properties of Object. Eg. Water, Vegetation, Land; Temperature, Concentration, State of Development; Subtype, Species, Use of ... ; Includes determination of generic object type, character and property as well as its abstract meaning. => DATA INTERPRETATION

Landsat TM Near IR Band

What is REMOTE SENSING ?

HOW MUCH of WHAT is WHERE? HOW MUCH: determine by
simple COUNTING, measuring AREA covered or percentage of total area coverage. WHERE: Relate locations and area covered to either a standard map or to the actual location on the ground where the object occurs. NOTE: WHERE also refers to a moment in time

Landsat TM Near IR Band

What is REMOTE SENSING ?

What is the SHAPE and EXTENT of ... ? (Area,
Boundaries, Lineaments, ...) This extends the WHERE to be a completely GEOMETRIC problem. MAP PRODUCTION methods are to be applied to the analysis of RS information. These include: Photogrammetric Methods: Identification and Delineation of Boundaries and Lineaments (Roads, Rivers, Fault Lines)

Landsat TM Near IR Band

What is REMOTE SENSING ?

Has it CHANGED?

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CHANGE may occur with progress of TIME. Change may be detected through comparison of observed states at different moments in time.

=> CHANGE DETECTION

What is REMOTE SENSING ?

Remote Sensing (LookLook, No Touch) is a much wider field than we will Medical Imaging discuss in this lecture. We will concentrate on that part of RS dealing with EARTH LAND RESOURCES

Vision

Sound and Radio Wave Detection

What is REMOTE SENSING ?

Source of Force Field Sensor System eg. Camera

DATA ACQUISITION
Reflection

Resulting RS Data Set eg. Image

Object (generic)

What is REMOTE SENSING ?

What makes it tick ??? (1) RS requires a CARRIER of information, which can bridge distances. (2) RS requires a SENSOR which can detect changes in the carried Signal. (3) RS requires RECORDING, ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION and REPRESENTATION of the sensed information in a purposeful way.

Landsat TM Near IR Band

What is REMOTE SENSING ?

(1) RS requires a CARRIER of information, which can bridge distances. These Carriers of Information are FIELDS of FORCES: * Pressure Wave Fields of Sound, * Gravity Force Fields, * Magnetic Force Fields and * Electro-magnetic Force Fields. The latter are of our main interest, since they include visible and invisible LIGHT.

Landsat TM Near IR Band

What is REMOTE SENSING ?

(2) RS requires a SENSOR which can detect changes in the carried Signal. Apart from our own eyes and ears, technology has provided us with a multitude of sensors operating in the detection of force fields: microphones, geophones, photographic film, video cameras and photo detectors, radio wave receivers, gravimeters and magnetometers.

Landsat TM Near IR Band

What is REMOTE SENSING ?

(3) RS requires RECORDING, ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION and REPRESENTATION of the sensed information in a purposeful way. This is a technique based topic. It is essential for the success or failure of RS in respect of its anticipated purpose. This topic will be dealt with in its main aspects (but not completely) in the following lessons.

Landsat TM Near IR Band

What is REMOTE SENSING ?

DATA PROCESSING
Interpretation (secondary) Measurements Data Processing & Mapping (geometric) Presentation of Processing Results Explaining deduced OBJECT INFORMATION RS Data Set eg. Image

Object(s)

WHY REMOTE SENSING

REPETITIVE COVER LARGE AREA WIDE RANGE OF SPECTRAL CHANNELS DIFFERENT SPATIAL RESOLUTION TIMELY INFORMATION DIGITAL DATA COST EFFECTIVE

Application of Remote sensing

Agriculture forestry range resources land use and mapping geology water resources oceanography and marine resources environment