Transport in Mammals

Chapter 8

Lesson Objectives
(a) State the functions of blood (b) List the different ABO blood groups & all possible combinations for the donor& recipient in blood transfusions. (c) Identify the main blood vessels to & from the heart, lungs, liver & kidney. (d) Relate the structure of arteries, veins & capillaries to their functions. (e) Describe the transfer of materials between capillaries & tissue fluid. (f) Describe the structure& function of the heart in terms of muscular contraction and the working of valves. (f) Outline the cardiac cycle in terms of what happens during systole and diastole. (Histology of the heart muscle, names of nerves and transmitter substances are not required). 2 (h) Describe coronary heart disease in terms of the occlusion

Transport in Mammals
Introduction

Q. CAN WE DEPEND ON ONLY DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS FOR THE UPTAKE OF USEFUL SUBSTANCES AND THE REMOVAL OF WASTE PRODUCTS?

Think about this

Are all blood RED?

5

Skink

moglobin, Hemocyanin & Hemovana

Colour Who? Haemoglobin Hemocyanin Deoxygenated blood = colorless when darker shade of red; deoxygenated and Veterbrates Squid; Carboxyhemoglobin= dark blue when Snails; bright red oxygenated Centipede; cyanide poisoning increased redness all over horseshoe crab body because body cant etc use oxygen Hemovanabin vanabins turn a mustard yellow Sea squirts and with oxygen sea cucumbers

Are monkeys
(our closest relative)

blood cells the same as ours?

10

 Animals and bacteria have cell surface antigens referred to as a blood type Antigens from the human ABO blood group system are also found in apes such as chimpanzees , bonobos and gorillas.

11

12

Why do athletes train in high altitude places?

13

Think about this . . .

A leech feeds on blood of other animals without causing blood clots. Why?

14

Think about this . . .

Why Draculas are able to live for thousands of years?

15

Transport in Mammals
Components of Transport System

16

Task: Create a flowchart of components of transport in mammals Pair work Blank papers provided Write your name, class, date Write Title: I used to think

17

Q. What kind of transport systems have mammals developed?Lym p h a tic B l o d C i l to ry S yste m o rcu a
S yste m
Blood / Fluid Blood vessels Heart
Objective (f) (h) Not in O levels syllabus

LearningO Learning bjectives Objectives (a) & (e) (b) (d)

18

Transport in Mammals
Components of Blood

19

Study of Haemotology

20

1. Can you identify the following blood disorder?

Sickle Cell Anaemia

21

2. Can you identify the following blood disorder?

Haemophilia

22

3. Can you identify the following blood disorder?

Leukemia
23

4. Can you identify the following blood disorder?

Thalassemia

24

A. Components of Blood

25

A.1 What is blood made up of?

Plasma (55%) Red Blood cells 45% White blood cells Platelets

26

A.1. State the functions of blood Components of Transport System

Component Plasma Function Red blood White cells blood cells - Transports - Contains-Performs blood cells, haemoglo- phagocytoions, soluble bin & sis, food substances, oxygen antibody hormones, carbon transport formation dioxide, & causes urea, vitamins, tissue plasma proteins rejection Platelets -For blood clotting. - Platelets adhere to damaged areas, combine with fibrinogen to form fibrin.

27

A.2 Think about this . . . .

Is blood a tissue?
Yes, it is fluid tissue Consists of blood cells and platelets

28

A.3 Plasma

29

A.3 How does plasma look like?

Straw coloured liquid 90% water

30

A.4 What are the functions of plasma?

Water Solvent for transporting substances Maintain constant body temperature

Proteins Fibrinogen, prothrombin Involved in blood clotting Hormones Transported from endocrine glands to target organs 31

A.4 What are the functions of plasma? (II)

Urea
Metabolic waste Transported from liver to kidney for excretion

Carbon dioxide
From all tissues to lungs Present as bicarbonate ions

Dissolved nutrients
From small intestine to all tissues

32

A.5 Red blood cells

33

A.5 How does a red blood cell / erythrocyte look like?

34

A.5 What is the function of red blood cells?

Contains haemoglobin (Hb) that transports oxygen

Haemoglobin (purplish red) Tissue

Oxygen Lungs

Oxyhaemoglobin (bright red) (unstable compound)

35

A . 5 H o w a re R B C a d a p te d fo r th e i r fu n cti n ? o Feature
Circular, flattened, biconcave in shape Absence of nucleus Elastic cell membrane

Function
Increase cells SA : Vol Enables rapid diffusion of O2 into and out of cell Pack in more Hb Pass through small blood capillaries

Presence of haemoglobin Pigment combines reversibly with oxygen

36

Q. Where are RBC formed?

Bone Marrow (Ribs)

37

Q. How are bone marrow biopsy done?

38

A.5. What are some characteristics of RBC?

Life span ~ 120 days Once dead, broken down in spleen and liver Replacement rate ~ 2 500 000 RBC / s
39

A.5 Think about this . . . .

Male ~ 5.4 million RBC per mm3 of blood Female ~ 4.8 million RBC per mm3 of blood

Why does an average male have more RBC per mm3 of blood?
40

41

42

Think about this . . . .

What is carbon monoxide poisoning?

43

Q. What is carbon monoxide poisoning?

Haemoglobin + Carbon Monoxide

Carboxyhaemoglobin (very stable compound)

44

A.6 White blood cells

45

A.6 How does a white blood cell / leucocyte look like?

46

A.6 What is the function of white blood cells? Defend body against diseases

47

A . 6 H o w a re W B C a d a p te d fo r th e i r fu n cti n ? o Function Types of WBC Feature

Lymphocyte Produce antibodies Agglutination of bacteria Neutralize toxins Remain in body after infection

Phagocyte

Phagocytosis Actively seek, engulf and ingest bacteria

48

A.6 Where are lymphocytes formed?

Lymph nodes

49

A.6 What is the difference between lymphocytes and phagocytes?

White Blood Cells

Lymphocyte

Phagocyte

Monocyte

Polymorph

50

Think about this . . . .

The white blood cell count of someone who has a fever is higher than that of a normal person. Why?

51

A.7 Platelets

52

A.7 How do platelets look like?

53

A.7 What is the function of platelets?

Involved in the formation of blood clots
Form a temporary plug at cut or wound Prevent excessive loss of blood Prevent entry of bacteria

54

A.7 How are blood clots formed?

Damaged tissues release thrombokinase Thrombokinase + Calcium ions Prothrombin Thrombin + Vitamin K Fibrinogen Insoluble fibrin threads
55

Thrombin

Think about this . . . .

Why doesnt the blood in your body clot even though platelets are present?

56

A.7 Why doesnt the blood in your body clot even though platelets are present? Heparin an anticoagulant Produced in liver Present in undamaged cells

57

A.7 Think about this . . .

A leech feeds on blood of other animals without causing blood clots. Why?

58

A.7 What is leech therapy?

What is leech therapy?

59

A.7 Think about this . . . .

In the case of organ transplants, it is very important that the recipients body accepts the donors organ. How do doctors reduce the risk of tissue rejection during organ transplants?

60

A.7 Think about this . . . .

In Singapore, TV actress Andrea de Cruz narrowly escaped death after taking diet pills called Slim 10. She underwent an emergency liver transplant in May 2002, after her boyfriend, actor Pierre Png, donated half his own liver. Is it possible to have successful organ transplants even though the donor and recipient may not be genetically related?

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BLOOD
62

IN SUMMARY

A . 7 W h a t a re th e fu n cti n s o f o bl od? o
Function 1) Transport Feature of blood that enables this function Plasma transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, soluble food substances, hormones, antibodies, urea

2) Protection Lymphocytes Agglutination, Neutralisation of toxins Phagocytes Phagocytosis Platelets Blood-clotting

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. W h a t a re th e d i re n ce s b e tw e e n R B C , W B C a n d ffe p l te l ts? a e RBC WBC Platelet

Appearance Biconcave, circular Site of production Bone Marrow Irregular shape Irregular shape

Lymphocytes Lymph Bone nodes marrow Phagocytes Bone marrow 1 day or less Nucleated Hb absent 6 days No nucleus Hb absent

Life span

120 days

Presence of No nucleus Hb and Hb present nucleus

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B. Blood group classification

65

B.1 Blood group classification

ABO blood groups
A, B, AB, O blood groups

Rhesus / Rh factor classification

Rh positive or Rh negative

66

Q. Why are blood groups named as A, B, AB or O?

67

Human Blood Groups

Blood group Antibody present Antigen present in PLASMA on RED BLOOD CELL Anti-b Anti-a None Anti-a Anti-b A B A and B None
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A B AB O

B.2 Blood tranfusions

Recipients plasma must not contain antibodies that will react with antigen donors blood cells

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Q. What happens when an A+ donates blood to a B+?

70

. Blood transfusions
Who can receive blood from whom?
Blood group
A B AB O

Antigens
A B A and B none

Antibodie s
b a none a and b

Can give blood to

A and AB B and AB AB AB , A , B , O

Can receive blood from

A and O B and O AB , A , B , O O

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B.3 Universal Donor vs Universal Recipient

72

B.4 What is meant by the Rhesus Factor?

Protein found on surface of RBC

Presence of protein Rh positive Absence of protein Rh negative

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C. Major Blood Vessels

74

Pulmonary artery Vena cava

Pulmonary vein Aorta

Hepatic artery Hepatic vein

Renal vein

Renal artery

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C. Types of Blood Vessels

76

Q. What are Blood vessels?

System of tubes through which blood flows in the body Three types of blood vessels :
1.Arteries 2.Capillaries 3.Veins Total length of blood vessels 160 000 km

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Types of Blood Vessels

3.5,

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C.1 ARTERY

80

Artery

81

Artery
Connective Tissue

Smooth muscle

Lumen Wavy elastic band Endothelium

82

Size of wall

Thick

Arteries receive blood directly from the heart. Blood is at high pressure. Thick walls required to withstand high blood pressure in the arteries. Enables the artery wall to stretch and recoil. Pushes the blood along in spurts. Creates the pulse.

Layer of elastic Thick and muscle tissues

Direction of blood flow

Heart to organs

Arteries carry blood AWAY from the heart

Oxygen content Oxygenated blood, except pulmonary artery

Arteries carry blood away from the heart, hence they carry oxygenated blood. Pulmonary artery carry blood away from heart to lungs, it carries deoxygenated blood. Arteries carry oxygenated blood. Oxy-haemoglobin appears red. Usually large vessels, within deep muscles for protection.

Colour

Red

Location

Deep muscle

Valves

Absent except in pulmonary artery

Blood pressure is high, blood does not backflow. No valves required. In pulmonary artery, valves (semi-lunar valves) present to prevent backflow of blood into ventricles.

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C.2 VEIN

84

Vein
Connective Tissue

Smooth muscle

Lumen

Endothelium

85

Size of wall

Thin

Veins receive blood from the capillary network. Blood is at low pressure. Blood flow is slow and smooth. Thick walls are not required. The veins do not need to stretch or recoil. The blood is at low pressure. Veins carry blood BACK to the heart. Veins carry blood back to the heart, from the capillary network. Hence, they carry deoxygenated blood. Pulmonary vein carry blood from the lungs back to the heart, hence they carry oxygenated blood. Veins carry deoxygenated blood. Deoxy-haemoglobin appears bluish. to the capillary network which is found in all tissues.

Layer of Thin elastic and (Less elastic tissue) muscle tissues Direction of blood flow Organs to heart

Oxygen content Deoxygenated blood, except pulmonary vein

Colour

Bluish-red

Location

Nearer to body surface Near

Valves

Present

Blood flow is slow and at low pressure. Valves are 86 required to prevent backflow of blood.

86

Valves

87

Exercising helps blood to flow!

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C.3 Capillary
89

C a p i l ry la
W h e re exch a n g e o f m a te ri l ta ke p l ce as a b e tw e e n b l o d a n d o ti e s/ ce l s ssu l B ra n ch re p e a te d l a n d y fo u n d b e tw e e n ce l s o f l a l o st a l ssu e s ( w h y?) m lti Consists if a thin layer of flattened (why?) endothelial cells which are selectively permeable

90

Capillary

91

Capillary
Characteristics Size of wall Capillary One-cell thick

Reason For efficient exchange of materials between the blood and the tissue cells. Blood flows from artery to vein.

Layer of elastic and muscle tissues Direction of blood flow Oxygen content

Absent Arteriole to venule

Oxygenated blood Oxygen diffuses from the blood cells into the tissue at the arteriole cells in the capillary network. Hence, the blood at the end. Deoxygenated venous end of the capillary is deoxygenated. blood at the venule end. Bluish-red

Colour

Capillary carry deoxygenated blood. Deoxyhaemoglobin appears bluish. Exchange of materials happen between capillaries and all body tissue. 92

Location

Inside all tissues

Valves

Absent

Differences between Blood Vessels

93

How are the 3 blood vessels linked?

94

E. TRANSFER OF MATERIALS BETWEEN

95

Q. What is the relationship between capillaries, cells and lymph vessels?

Capillaries contain blood Spaces between cells contain tissue fluid Lymph vessels contain lymph

96

NOT IN NOTES-

Describe the transfer of substances between capillaries and tissue Read TB pages 164-165 fluid
Questions to discuss 1.What is interstitial fluid? 2.How is tissue fluid formed? 3.Why is the interstitial fluid needed? 4.What is carried at the arterial end of the capillary? 5.What does the venous end of the capillary contain? Look at the picture given. 1.What is the difference between the net pressure at the arterial and venous end?97

Q. What are the differences between blood plasma, tissue fluid and lymph Blood plasma
Appearance : Straw coloured liquid Location : Liquid part of blood in blood vessels Composition : Plasma, plasma proteins

98

Q. What are the differences between blood plasma, tissue fluid and lymph Tissue fluid
Appearance : Colourless, watery liquid Location : Surrounds all cellsof body and fills the spaces between them Composition : Same as blood plasma but no plasma proteins

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Q. What are the differences between blood plasma, tissue fluid and lymph Lymph
Appearance : Colourless, watery liquid Location : Lymphatic capillaries Composition : More waste products and less food substances than tissue fluid

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Transport in Mammals (II)

101

F. STRUCTURE OF HEART

102

Lesson Objectives
(f) Describe the structure& function of the heart in terms of muscular contraction and the working of valves. (g) Outline the cardiac cycle in terms of what happens during systole and diastole. (Histology of the heart muscle, names of nerves and transmitter substances are not required). (h) Describe coronary heart disease in terms of the occlusion of coronary arteries and list the possible causes, such as diet, stress and smoking, stating the possible 103 preventative measures.

Q. What is the function of the heart?

Pumps oxygenated blood to all parts of the body

104

Q. Where is your heart located?

105

Q. How does the heart look like?

106

Q. How is the heart protected?

Muscles of chest walls Rib cage Sternum Diaphragm Pericardium

107

Q. Can the heart develop outside the body?

108

F.1 EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE MAMMALIAN HEART

109

8) Aortic Arch 6) Vena cava 7) Pulmonary artery 3) Left Atrium 4) Right Atrium

2) Left Ventricle 5) Right Ventricle 1) Apex

110

F. 2 I te rn a lS tru ctu re o f th e n M a m m a l a n H e a rt i

111

6) Superior vena cava 8) Pulmonary artery

11

10) Aorta
1
3
9
2

1 0

3) Right atrium

11) Tricuspid valve

1

7)Inferior vena cava

4) Right ventricle

1 1

13) Semi-lunar valves

6
6

9) Pulmonary vein 2) Left atrium 12) Bicuspid valve 1) Left ventricle

5) Septum
112

113

F.3 Flow of blood in the heart

Right side of the heart All parts of the body
Superior and Inferior Vena Cava

Left side of the heart Organ Blood vessel Chamber Valve Chamber Valve Blood vessel Organ Lungs Pulmonary vein Left atrium Bicuspid valve Left ventricle Semilunar valve Aorta All parts of the body
114

Right atrium Tricuspid valve Right ventricle Semilunar valve Pulmonary artery Lungs

Q. In one complete circulation, how many times does blood pass through the heart?

Pulmonary circulation
Blood circulation to and from the lungs

Systemic circulation
Blood circulation to and from all other parts of the body

DOUBLE CIRCULATION in birds and mammals

115

2) Deoxygenated blood at high pressure

1) Deoxygenated blood at low pressure

Systemic Circulation
116

4) Oxygenated blood at high pressure

Pulomonary Circulation

3) Oxygenated blood at low pressure

F.4 What is the function of the atria?

Right atrium
Receives deoxygenated blood from the vena cava

Left atrium
Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary vein
117

F.4 What is the function of the ventricles?

Right ventricle
Pumps blood to the lungs via pulmonary artery

Left ventricle
Pumps blood to all parts of the body (except the lungs) via the aorta

118

Q. HOW DO THE ATRIA WALLS DIFFER FROM VENTRICLE WALLS?

Why is there a need for this difference?

119

F.4 What is the function of the vena cava?

Superior vena cava
Returns deoxygenated blood from the head and upper limbs to the heart

Inferior vena cava

Returns deoxygenated blood from the lower limbs and organs to the heart
120

F.4 What is the function of the pulmonary artery/vein? Pulmonary artery

Carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs

Pulmonary vein
Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart

121

F.4 What is the function of the aorta?

Aorta
Carries oxygenated blood to all parts of the body except the lungs

122

F.5 What is the function of the atrioventricular valves? Tricuspid valve (Right)
Prevents backflow of blood to the right atrium when the right ventricle contracts

Bicuspid valve (Left)

Prevents backflow of blood to the left atrium when the left ventricle contracts
123

F.5 What is the function of the semilunar valves? Pulmonary valve

Prevent backflow of blood from the pulmonary artery into the right ventricle when the right ventricle relaxes

Aortic valve
Prevent backflow of oxygenated blood from the aorta into the left ventricle when the left ventricle relaxes 124

F.5 How do heart valves look like?

125

126

F.5 Where are the heart valves located?

127

128

Q. Have you heard of tugging at ones heart strings? Chordae tendineae

Attached to walls of ventricles Prevent flaps of valve from being flapping back into the atrium when ventricles contract

129

F.6 HOW DOES THE CHORDAE TENDINEAE LOOK LIKE?

130

131

132

F. Cardiac Cycle

133

Cardiac
1
vena cava right atrium

right ventricle

Both atria and ventricles Cycle Overview. are 1 relaxed Right atrium pulmonary vein receives blood from the vena left atrium cava (both superior and left ventricle inferior vena cava) 2 Left atrium receives blood from the pulmonary vein.
134

Cardiac Cycle
1 3

2 2

left ventricle right ventricle

Atria fill up with blood. Atria contract, blood is pumped into the ventricle s Tricuspid and bicuspid valves
135

Cardiac Cycle
1 2
aortic arch

Ventricular Systole Ventricles filled with blood. Ventricles contract. (blood pressure increases) Tricuspid and bicuspid valves close, producing LOUD lub sound. (prevents backflow of blood into atria) Aortic and pulmonary semi-lunar valves open. Blood flows from 136 ventricles into

bicuspid valve pulmonary arch tricuspid valve

Cardiac Cycle
4
pulmonary vein

Ventricular Diastole
4

left atrium vena cava left ventricle right atrium

Ventricles relax. (blood pressure decreases) Aortic and pulmonary semi-lunar valves close, producing SOFT dub sound (prevent backflow of blood into ventricles) Tricuspid and bicuspid 137

right ventricle

2 3

WHOLE CYCLE ( 1 - 4 ) REPEATS !

Heart sounds
Lub dub . Lub dub

138

F.1 What causes heart sounds?

Opening and closing of valves Lub Sound
Closing of bicuspid and tricuspid valves

Dub Sound
Closing of semilunar valves
139

valves dont function properly?

Heart murmurs

F.2 What happens when your

140

F. Blood Pressure

141

Q. What is blood pressure?

Force that blood exerts on walls of blood vessels as a result of the contraction and relaxation of the heart Highest in the aorta, lowest in the veins Higher during ventricular contraction and lower during relaxation

142

Q. How is blood pressure measured?

Measured using a sphygmomanometer Reading 120/80 (120-systole, 80diastole)

143

Q. What happens if a person has high blood pressure?

Pressures above 140/90 Causes the walls of the arterioles to thicken, narrowing the lumen and reducing supply of oxygen to the tissues Higher risk of arteriole ballooning out and possibly bursting

144

Blood pressure graph

Capillaries Venules

Small veins Large veins

Small veins

Capillaries

Large veins

Vena cava

Small arteries

Venules

Vena cava Arterioles Small arteries Large arteries

Aorta

Arterioles

Large arteries

Aorta
145

Heart pressure graph

Refer to your worksheet

146

Fu n cti n : o C o m p a ri n g th e p re ssu re o f th e a o rta , ri h t g ve n tri e cl a n d ri h t g a tri m . u Pre d i ct th e se q u e n ce o f e ve n ts i th e 147 n

Pre Point 1
Both atrium pressure and ventricle pressure are low . When Atria P > Ventricle P Atrial Systole occurs : Tricuspid / Ventricle pressure Bicuspid valves open risesallow blood to above atrium pressure . atria flow from ventricles P > Atria Ventricle P Ventricular Systole occurs & resulting in 2 events : ( 1 ) At Point 1 : Tricuspid & Biscuspid closes

148

Point 1 & 2
To allow blood flow into aorta & pulmonary artery Tri / Biscusp id closes Aortic semi - lunar valves open To prevent backflow from ventricle back into atrium

At Point 3 :
Aortic SL valves close

Ventricle pressure falls below aorta pressure Aorta P > Ventricle P Blood backflows from Aorta / pulmonary artery ventricles Aortic SL valves close Ventricle pressure falls sharply Ventricle undergoing ventricular DIASTOLE
150

At Point 4 : Ventricle pressure falls below atrium pressure . Atria P > Ventricle P Blood flows from Atrium ventricle Bicuspid valves open Bicuspid valves open

WHOLE CYCLE REPEATS !

151

2 . Aortic semi lunar valves open

3. Aortic SL valves close

1 . To prevent backflow from ventricle back into atrium 2 . To allow blood flow into aorta & pulmonary artery

1 . Tri / Biscuspid closes

4. Bicusp id valves open

152

H. HEART DISEASES

153

Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)

154

Coronary arteries supply blood to the heart.

Blocked Coronary Arteries

HEART ATTACK

155

Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is the deposition of fatty substances on the INNER surfaces of the coronary arteries.

Lumen Blood pressure

156

Thrombosis
Blood clots form easily in the narrow lumen. The blood clot is known as a thrombosis.

157

Coronary Heart Disease

Arteriosclerosis Hardened / thickened artery walls Fat deposits Blood clots can occur

158

Preventing CHD
1.Proper diet 2.Proper Stress Management 3.No smoking
Nicotine increases blood pressure and the risk of blood clotting in the coronary arteries Carbon monoxide increases fatty deposits

4.Exercise
159

Summary
Q. What have we learned?

Lesson Objectives

(a) State the functions of blood

(b) List the different ABO blood groups & all possible combinations for the

donor& recipient in blood transfusions.

(c) Identify the main blood vessels to & from the heart, lungs, liver &

kidney.

(d) Relate the structure of arteries, veins & capillaries to their functions. (e) Describe the transfer of materials between capillaries & tissue fluid.

(f) Describe the structure& function of the heart in terms of muscular contraction and the working of valves.

(f) Outline the cardiac cycle in terms of what happens during 161 systole and diastole. (Histology of the heart muscle, names of

TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN MAMMALS

consists of

Blood Circulatory System

consists of

Lymphatic System
Blood vessels

Blood Arteries Arterioles

Failure/ malfuction

Capillaries

Venules

Veins

Hear t
is divided into chambers

branch into

branch into

join up to form

join up to form

Heart diseas es

Consists of: Red blood cells White blood cells Platelets Plasma Circulates from: Heart to lungs and back (pulmonary circulation) Heart to the rest of the body and back (systemic circulation)

Atria right receives deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body left receives oxygenated blood from the lungs right

Ventricles left pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body

162

pumps deoxygenated blood into the lungs

Mechanism of Blood Clotting

The clotting process can be summarised in the three reactions shown below: 1 Damaged tissue and platelets produce Thrombokinase (enzyme)

Prothrombin (inactive)

thrombokinase and calcium ions thrombin

Thrombin (active)

Fibrinogen

Insoluble fibrin threads form a mesh to trap blood cells

The Cardiac Cycle

1. Both the atria and the ventricles are relaxed. The right atrium receives blood from the venae cavae while the left atrium receives blood from the pulmonary veins. 2. The atria contract, forcing blood into the ventricles. 3. After a short pause, the ventricles contract. This is called ventricular systole. 1
pulmonary vein left atrium vena cava right atrium left ventricle

right ventricle

2
aortic arch

pulmonary arch tricuspid valve

bicuspid valve

right left ventricle ventricle

4. The ventricles then relax. This is ventricular diastole. The drop in pressure in the ventricles causes the semi-lunar valves in the two arches to close. This produces a soft dub sound. This prevents the backflow of blood into the ventricles. The drop in pressure in the ventricles also causes the bicuspid valves to open. The whole cycle (1-4) then repeats.