Digital Components

      

Chapter 25

Introduction Gate Characteristics Logic Families Logic Family Characteristics A Comparison of Logic Families Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Transistor-Transistor Logic

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Introduction
 Earlier we looked at a range of digital applications based on logic gates at that time we treated the gates as black boxes

25.1

 We will now consider the construction of such gates, and their characteristics  In this lecture we will concentrate on small- and medium-scale integration circuits containing just a handful of gates
typical gates are shown on the next slide
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 Typical logic device pin-outs

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Gate Characteristics
 The inverter or NOT gate
consider the characteristics of a simple inverting amplifier as shown below we normally use only the linear region

25.2

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 We can use an inverting amplifier as a logical inverter but using only the non-linear region

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 we choose input values to ensure that we are always outside of the linear region as in (a) unlike linear amplifiers, we use circuits with a rapid transition between the non-linear regions as in (b)

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 Logic levels
the voltage ranges representing 0 and 1 represent the logic levels of the circuit often logic 0 is represented by a voltage close to 0 V but the allowable voltage range varies considerably the voltage used to represent logic 1 also varies greatly. In some circuits it might be 2-4 V, while in others it might be 12-15 V in order for one gate to work with another the logic levels must be compatible
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 Noise immunity
noise is present in all real systems this adds random fluctuations to voltages representing logic levels to cope with noise, the voltage ranges defining the logic levels are more tightly constrained at the output of a gate than at the input thus small amounts of noise will not affect the circuit the maximum noise voltage that can be tolerated by a circuit is termed its noise immunity, VNI
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 Transistors as switches
both FETs and bipolar transistors make good switches neither form produce ideal switches and their characteristics are slightly different both forms of device take a finite time to switch and this produces a slight delay in the operation of the gate this is termed the propagation delay of the circuit

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 The FET as a logical switch

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 Rise and fall times

because the waveforms are not perfectly square we need a way of measuring switching times we measure the rise time, tr and fall time, tf as shown below

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 The bipolar transistor as a logical switch

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 when the input voltage to a bipolar transistor is high the transistor turns ON and the output voltage is driven down to its saturation voltage which is about 0.1 V however, saturation of the transistor results in the storage of excess charge in the base region this increases the time taken to turn OFF the device an effect known as storage time this makes the device faster to turn ON than OFF some switching circuits increase speed by preventing the transistors from entering saturation
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 Timing considerations
all gates have a certain propagation delay time, tPD this is the average of the two switching times
1 t PD ! 2 (t PHL  t PLH )

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Logic Families
 We have seen that different devices use different voltages ranges for their logic levels  They also differ in other characteristics

25.3

 In order to assure correct operation when gates are interconnected they are normally produced in families  The most widely used families are:
complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) transistor-transistor logic (TTL) emitter-coupled logic (ECL)
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Logic Family Characteristics

 Complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)
most widely used family for large-scale devices combines high speed with low power consumption usually operates from a single supply of 5 15 V

25.4

excellent noise immunity of about 30% of supply voltage can be connected to a large number of gates (about 50) many forms some with t down to 1 ns power consumption depends on speed (perhaps 1 mW)
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 Transistor-transistor logic (TTL)

based on bipolar transistors one of the most widely used families for small- and medium-scale devices rarely used for VLSI typically operated from 5V supply typical noise immunity about 1 1.6 V many forms, some optimised for speed, power, etc. high speed versions comparable to CMOS (~ 1.5 ns) low-power versions down to about 1 mW/gate
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 Emitter-coupled logic (ECL)

based on bipolar transistors, but removes problems of storage time by preventing the transistors from saturating very fast operation - propagation delays of 1ns or less high power consumption, perhaps 60 mW/gate low noise immunity of about 0.2-0.25 V used in some high speed specialist applications, but now largely replaced by high speed CMOS

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A Comparison of Logic Families

Parameter Basic gate Fan-out Power per gate (mW) Noise immunity t (ns) CMOS NAND/NOR >50 1 @ 1 MHz Excellent 1 - 200 TTL NAND 10 1 - 22 Very good 1.5 33

25.5

ECL OR/NOR 25 4 - 55 Good 1-4

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Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

 A CMOS inverter

25.6

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 CMOS gates

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 CMOS logic levels and noise immunity

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Transistor-Transistor Logic
 Discrete TTL inverter and NAND gate circuits

25.7

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 A basic integrated circuit TTL NAND gate

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 A standard TTL NAND gate

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 A TTL NAND gate with open collector output

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Key Points
Physical gates are not ideal components Logic gates are manufactured in a range of logic families The ability of a gate to ignore noise is its noise immunity Both MOSFETs and bipolar transistors are used in gates All logic gates exhibit a propagation delay when responding to changes in their inputs  The most widely used logic families are CMOS and TTL  CMOS is available in a range of forms offering high speed or very low power consumption  TTL logic is also produced in many versions, each optimised for a particular characteristic
    
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