Chapter Fourteen

Leadership

14-1a

Chapter Fourteen Outline

Trait and Behavioral Theories of Leadership
Trait Theory Behavioral Styles Theory

Situational Theories
Fiedlers Contingency Model Path-Goal Theory Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Theory

14-1b

Chapter Fourteen Outline (continued)

From Transactional to Charismatic Leadership
How Does Charismatic Leadership Transform Followers? Research and Managerial Implications

Additional Perspectives on Leadership

The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model of Leadership Substitutes for Leadership Servant-Leadership Superleadership

14-2a

Trait Theory
Leadership Traits: represent the personal Traits

characteristics that differentiate leaders from followers.

Historic findings reveal that leaders and followers vary by - intelligence - dominance - self-confidence - level of energy and activity - task-relevant knowledge Contemporary findings show that - people tend to perceive that someone is a leader when he or she exhibits traits associated with intelligence, masculinity, and dominance - people want their leaders to be credible - credible leaders are honest, forward-looking, inspiring, and competent

14-2b

Trait Theory (continued)

Gender and leadership

- men and women were seen as displaying more task and social leadership, respectively - women used a more democratic or participative style than men, and men used a more autocratic and directive style than women - men and women were equally assertive - women executives, when rated by their peers, managers and direct reports, scored higher than their male counterparts on a variety of effectiveness criteria

14-3

Behavioral Styles Theory

Ohio State Studies identified two critical dimensions of leader behavior. 1. Consideration: creating mutual respect and trust with followers 2. Initiating Structure: organizing and defining what group members should be doing University of Michigan Studies identified two leadership styles that were similar to the Ohio State studies - one style was employee centered and the other was job centered Blake and Moutons Managerial Grid represents four leadership styles found by crossing concern for production and concern for people

Research shows that there is not one best style of leadership. The effectiveness of a particular leadership style depends on the situation at hand.

14-5 Figure 14-1

Representation of Fiedlers Contingency Model

High Control Situations
Good High

Situational Control

Moderate Control Situations

Poor High Poor High

Low Control Situations

Poor Low Poor Low Weak

Leader-memberGood relations

Good Good High Low

Task Structure High

Position Power Strong Weak Strong Weak

Strong StrongStrong

Situation

II

III

IV

VI

VII

VIII

Optimal Leadership Style

Task Motivated Leadership

Relationship Motivated Leadership

Task Motivated Leadership

14-6 Figure 14-2

Houses Path-Goal Theory

Employee Characteristics - Locus of control - Task ability - Need for achievement - Experience - Need for clarity

Leadership Styles Directive Supportive Participative Achievement oriented

Employee Attitudes and Behavior - Job satisfaction - Acceptance of leader - Motivation

Environmental Factors - Employees task - Authority system - Work group

14-7 Figure 14-3

Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Theory

Leader Behavior High

Relationship Behavior (supportive behavior)

Participating S3 Share ideas and facilitate in decision making Delegating S4 Turn over responsibility for decisions and implementation
Low High Low R4

Selling S2 Explain decisions and provide opportunity for clarification Telling S1 Provide specific instructions and closely supervise performance
High

Low

Task Behavior Follower Readiness Moderate R1 Follower-Directed R3

R2 Leader-Directed

14-4

Skills and Best Practices: Tips for Improving Leader Effectiveness

Behavior Behaviors Listen
Examine Assist Develop Encourage Recognize

Recommended
Intensely listen to what others have to say. Determine the true cause of performance problems. Think through problems from all perspectives. Do not play favorites and find solutions that benefit everyone involved. Help others to learn from mistakes and errors. Explain the rationale for decisions and implement fair policies and procedures. Provide employees with the resources needed to do a job. Gently push people to advance into more demanding roles. Praise people for their good work. Focus on the positive whenever possible.

Source: CEOs Need to Listen, Examine, Assist, The Arizona Republic, April 22, 2001, p D2.

14-8a

Transactional versus Charismatic Leadership

Transactional Leadership: focuses on the interpersonal
interactions between managers and employees

Transactional Leaders

- use contingent rewards to motivate employees - exert corrective action only when employees fail to obtain performance goals

14-8b

Transactional versus Charismatic Leadership (continued)

Charismatic Leadership: emphasizes symbolic

leader behavior that transforms employees to pursue organizational goals over self-interests

Charismatic Leaders
-

use visionary and inspirational messages rely on non-verbal communication appeal to ideological values attempt to intellectually stimulate employees display confidence in self and followers set high performance expectations

For class discussion: Should a leader be both

transactional and charismatic? Is charismatic leadership only critical for senior executives and not for entry level supervisors or managers?

14-9a Figure 14-4a

Charismatic Model of Leadership

Leader behavior Effects on followers and work groups
Increased intrinsic motivation, achievement orientation, and goal pursuit

Individual and Organizational Characteristics

Traits

Outcomes
Personal commitmen t to leader and vision

Leader Organizational establishes a vision

Culture

14-9b Figure 14-4b

Charismatic Model of Leadership (cont)

Leader behavior Effects on followers and work groups Outcomes

Individual and Organizational Characteristics

Traits

Leader establishes high Organizational performance Culture expectations and displays confidence in him/herself and the collective ability to realize the vision Leader models the desired values, traits, beliefs, and behaviors needed to realize the vision

SelfIncreased identification with sacrificial the leader and the behavior collective interests of organizational members Increased cohesion among workgroup Organization members al commitment Increased selfesteem, selfTask efficacy, and meaningfulne intrinsic interests in ss and goal satisfaction accomplishment Increased role modeling of charismatic leadership Increased individual group, and

14-10

The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX Model)

This model is based on the idea that one of two distinct types of leader-member exchange relationships evolve, and these exchanges are related to important work outcomes. - in-group exchange: a partnership characterized by mutual trust, respect and liking - out-group exchange: a partnership characterized by a lack of mutual trust, respect and liking Research supports this model

14-12

Substitutes for Leadership

Substitutes for leadership represent

situational variables that can substitute for, neutralize, or enhance the effects of leadership. Research shows that substitutes for leadership directly influence employee attitudes and performance.

14-13a Table 14-1a

Substitutes for Leadership

RelationshipOriented or Considerate Leader Behavior is Unnecessary Task-Oriented or Initiating Structure Leader Behavior is Unnecessary

Characteristic

Of the Subordinate
1. Ability, experience, training, knowledge 2. Need for Independence 3. Professional orientation 4. Indifference toward organizational rewards X X X X X X X

Of the Task
5. Unambiguous and Routine 6. Methodically invariant 7. Provides its own feedback concerning accomplishment 8. Intrinsically satisfying. X X X X

14-13b Table 14-1b

Substitutes for Leadership (cont)

Relationship- Task-Oriented or Oriented or Initiating Considerate Structure Leader Leader Behavior is Behavior is Unnecessary Unnecessary

Characteristic

Of the Organization
9. Formalization (explicit plans, goals, and areas of responsibility) 10. Inflexibility (rigid, unbending rules and procedures) 11. Highly specified and active advisory and staff functions 12. Closely knit, cohesive work groups X X X

X X

13. Organizational rewards not with the leaders Adapted from S Kerr and J M Jermier, Substitutes for Leadership:Their Meaning Source: and control Measurement, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, December 1978, pp 375-403 14. Spatial distance between superior and X

14-14

Servant and Superleadership

Servant Leadership represents a philosophy in which leaders focus on increased service to others rather than to oneself. A superleader is someone who leads others to lead themselves by developing employees selfmanagement skills. Superleaders attempt to increase employees feelings of personal control and intrinsic motivation.

14-15a Table 14-2a

Characteristics of the Servant-Leader

1. Listening Servant-leaders focus on listening to
identify and clarify the needs and desires of a group.

2. Empathy Servant-leaders try to empathize with

others feelings and emotion. An individuals good intentions are assumed even when he or she performs poorly. 3. Healing Servant-leaders strive to make themselves and others whole in the face of failure or suffering.

4. Awareness

Servant-leaders are very self-aware or their strengths and limitations.

14-15b Table 14-15b

Characteristics of the Servant-Leader (continued

5. Persuasion
Servant-leaders rely more on persuasion than positional authority when making decisions and trying to influence others. to develop broader based conceptual thinking. Servant-leaders seek an appropriate balance between a shortterm, day-to-day focus and a long-term, conceptual orientation.

6. Conceptualization Servant-leaders take the time and effort

7. Foresight Servant-leaders have the ability to foresee

future outcomes associated with a current course of action or situation.

14-15c Table 14-2c

Characteristics of the Servant-Leader (continued)

8. Stewardship
Servant-leaders assume that they are stewards of the people and resources they manage.

9. Commitment to Servant-leaders are committed to people the growth of beyond their immediate work role. They people commit to fostering an environment that
encourages personal, professional, and spiritual growth.

10. Building Servant-leaders strive to create a sense of Community community both within and outside the
work organization.