Biological Perspective

Brain and Behaviour

 Review
Types of Research Methods

Ethics

Critical Thinking
 Biological Perspectives
Chapter 2, pp.38
 Did you know….
The human brain has
about
100,000,000,000 (100
billion) neurons
 Did you know…
It is not possible to tickle
yourself.
The cerebellum, a part of
the brain, warns the rest
of the brain that you are
about to tickle yourself.
Since your brain knows
this, it ignores the
resulting sensation.
Did you know…

Your brain is 80% water

 Did you know…

Your brain is move

active and thinks
more at night than
during the day.
 Wow..
The brain is a miraculous thing…

It the home to your thoughts, desires,

goals, dreams, and so much more.

It is also home to neurons, brain activity,

impulses and other biological goodies.
 Basic Parts
The is mainly made
up of neurons
 What is a neuron?
Basic nerve cell of the nervous system
Neurons have four basic parts :

Axon Terminals
Axon
Soma
Dendrites
 What is a Neuron?:
Axon Terminals

Branches that link up with dendrites and

other somas of other neurons

Assists with the passing of messages from

one neuron to the next.

Differing lengths
What is a neuron?:
Axon Terminals

Axon
Terminals
 What is a neuron?:
The Soma
Main cell body

Receives messages from other neurons

What is a neuron?:
The Soma

Soma
(Cell Body)
 What is a neuron?
The Axon
• Thin fibre where messages from the soma
are sent through
What is a neuron?
The Axon

Axon
 What is a neuron?:
The Dendrites
Look like tree roots

Receive messages from other neurons

What is a neuron?:
The Dendrites

Dendrites
Introducing the Neuron…
Not just one…
Not just some…

Neural Network
 Nerve Impulses
Chapter 2, pp. 40-41; Figure 2.4
Each neuron in the brain is electrically
charged by ions, which are found in the
nerve cells
Ions have either a positive or a negative
charge
There are differing number of plus and
minus charges outside of the nerve cell
 Nerve Impulses
 As a result, the inside of the nerve cell has
an electrical potential.
– Electrical Potential:
The difference in electrical charges between the
outside and the inside of the neuron.
Nerve Impulses
 Nerve Impulses
An inactive neuron (or a neuron that is not
firing) has an electrical charge
– Action potential
There is an electrical charge that has the “potential
for action”
An inactive neuron simply means that it is awaiting
a message from another neuron…
 Nerve Impulses
When messages arrive from other
neurons, the electrical potentials are
constantly changing – higher-lower, etc.
Every neuron has a threshold of about -50
millivolts.
Once this threshold of -50mv is reached,
then an action potential (or nerve impulse)
sweeps down the axon.
 Neural Impulses

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ysDGX6bOgAw&feature=related

Search: Neurons and How they Work

 What happens during an action
potential?

The membrane of an axon has many small

perforations, called ion channels
These channels are normally blocked by
gates/doors.
During an action potential, the doors swing open
and the positive ions (Na+) rush into the axon.
The channels begin opening by the soma (main
body), and continue down the nerve body.
As the action potential moves down the neuron,
the doors continue to swing open
What happens during an
Action Potential?
All or Nothing Phenomenon
A neuron will fire completely or not at all.
Once the action potential has occurred,
the neuron becomes slightly negative, as
all of the positive ions have moved out of
the cell body.
This is called the
– negative-after potential
Synapses and Neurotransmitters

How does information travel from one

neuron to the next?
Communication from
neuron to neuron
 The Nervous System:
Being Wired for Action
Nerves and neurons are different:

– Nerves are collections of axons, where

neurons are individual cell bodies
Nerves vs. The Neuron
The Nervous System: Being Wired
for Action
Nerves are white because they contain
axons coated with a fatty layer or sheath
tissue called, myelin
There are small gaps in the myelin to help
the nerve impulses move faster
The action potential jump from gap to gap.
The Nervous System:
Myelin
 The Nervous System:
Myelin
There are small gaps in the myelin to help the
nerve impulses move faster.

The action potential jump from gap to gap.

This helps because it allows the action. potential

to move faster, than it would if it were to travel
down the axon every time.

Helps with reflexes, reactions and movements.

 The Nervous System:
Myelin
When this myelin layer is
damaged, an individual
may suffer from paralysis,
numbness or weakness.
MS –Multiple Sclerosis

– When the myelin payer is

damaged, the action
potentials cannot move as
quickly or at all.
Damaged Myelin
 Neurilemma

Also wrapped around the

nerves are a thin layer of
cells called the
neurilemma
– This forms a tunnel so that
damaged nerves can repair
themselves.
– Found outside the most
nerves in the brain and the
spinal cord
New Knowledge about the Brain
Only recently people believed that we
were born with all of the neurons that we
needed for our whole life,
This was a depressing thought because it
has been a proven fact that we lose brain
cell everyday.
New Knowledge about the Brain
BUT –
– The brain reproduces more neurons to
replace the ones that have been lost.
– This process is called neurogenesis
– Every day there are thousands of new cells
that are originated in the brain.
– These new cells move to the surface and link
up with other neurons to become a part of the
brain’s circuitry
 Question
Why is the discovery of neurogenesis so
important for research ?
Remember:
– Neurogenesis: the reproduction of more
neurons to replace the ones that have been
lost.
 Brain Plasticity
It has been recently
been discovered that
the brain is capable of
developing new
synaptic connections.
Brain plasticity can
continue to change
over an entire life
time.
 Brain Plasticity
Study:
– Canadian researchers have discovered that aged rats
can grow new synaptic connections when they spend
time in complex environments
– Even more surprising, was the discovery that when
infant rats were stimulated briefly, they managed to
develop better motor and cognitive skills as adults
– These stimulated infant rats had notable changes in
their cognitive structure.
– This shows us that our environments directly affect
the development of our synaptic connections.
 Brain Plasticity:
Applicable to Addictions
The drugs that we take, the food that we
eat, all contribute to the neural
connections that are created in our brain.
This is why it is speculated that it is
difficult to quit addition to drugs, smoking,
etc.
The brain is not a static organ, it does not
stay the same forever – it grows
depending on the demands that are
placed on it.
 Neural Networks

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

 Neural Networks:
Central Nervous System
Brain and the Spinal
Cord

Studies have shown

that even in spite of
damaged that may
have been subjected
to the brain there is
hope that spinal cord
injuries can be fixed.
 Neural Networks:
Central Nervous System
Studies in rats have shown that closing the gaps
with nerve fibres from outside of the spinal cord
helps with the healing process.
The initial damage to the spine resulted in the
rats’ hind legs to become paralyzed.
After the experimentation, the rats regained use
of their hind legs – within 2 months.
Scientists have already begun the first human
trials of spinal grafts
 Neural Networks:
The Peripheral Nervous System
Divided into 2 major parts:
– Somatic
– Autonomic
 Neural Networks:
The Peripheral Nervous System

Somatic Nervous System

Responsible for
– Messages to sensory organs and skeletal muscles
Controls voluntary movements
– Writing
– Jumping
 Neural Networks:
The Peripheral Nervous System

– Autonomic Nervous System

Divided into 2 two other systems:
Both regulate responses involved with emotions (sweating)
– Sympathetic
“Fight or Flight”
Prepares the body for action
Emergency system
– Parasympathetic
Quiets the body down
Responsible for:
– Serving the internal organs and glands of the body
– Autonomic = self-governing, automatic
– Heart rate, breathing, digestion, etc.
 Neural Networks:
The Peripheral Nervous System
Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic
Difference:
– These 2 systems operate opposite functions:
– Somatic NS will control the writing a letter,
– Autonomic NS will control the dilation of your
eyes to assist with your sight.
 The Spinal Cord
Acts like a cable
connected to the brain
If we to cut up the cable,
it would reveal columns of
white matter (myelin).
There are 31 spinal
nerves that carry sensory
and motor messages to
and from the spinal cord.
 The Spinal Cord
There are 12 pairs of
cranial nerves that
leave the brain
directly.
Together, these
nerves function to
keep our whole body
in direct
communication with
our brain.
The Spinal Cord Family:
Spinal Nerves
The Spinal Cord Family:
The Spinal Nerves
The Spinal Cord Family:
The Cranial Nerves
 The Spinal Cord Family:
Cranial Nerves

Cranial
Nerves