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International Marketing is the application of marketing principles in more than one country. International Marketing is the multinational process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas, goods & services to create exchanges that satisfy individual & organizational objectives. ( American Marketing association)

Definition:
An economic phenomenon? A social phenomenon? A cultural phenomenon?

The movement towards the expansion of economic and social ties between countries through the spread of corporate institutions and the capitalist philosophy that leads to the shrinking of the world in economic terms.

When used in an economic context, it refers to the reduction and removal of barriers between national borders in order to facilitate the flow of goods, capital, services and labor. Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology

The movement towards the expansion of economic and social ties between countries through the spread of corporate institutions and the capitalist philosophy that leads to the shrinking of the world in economic terms In other words INTEGRATING OF ECONOMIES

The increasing reliance of economies on each other The opportunities to be able to buy and sell in any country in the world The opportunities for labour and capital to locate anywhere in the world The growth of global markets in finance

Made possible by:

Technology Communication networks Internet access Growth of economic cooperation trading blocs (EU, NAFTA, etc.) Collapse of communism Movement to free trade

FOR ECONOMIES : 1) Raising the standard of living 2) Global communication 3) Countries can invest in one another 4) Freedom and democracy 5) Travel made easier 6) Justice Globalization can go way beyond economic concerns to address such other issues as the environment. Whether it be disappearing forests, global warming,

FOR COMPANIES : Globalization can give companies several opportunities to leverage on. They are: 1. Experience Transfers Leveraging experience in another market 2. Scale Economies Produce volumes & gain with economies of scale 3. Recourse mobilization Identify people , money & raw materials from across the world 4. Global Strategies Work on a global platform to identify opportunities , strengths , threats & resources

Location economies ` Cost economies from experience effects ` Leveraging core competencies ` Leveraging subsidiary skills BUT ` Profitability is constrained by product customization and the imperative of localization.
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Realized by performing a value creation activity in an optimal location anywhere around the globe Often arise due to differences in factor costs It can lower costs of value to enable low cost strategy Help in differentiation of products from competitors Global web: different stages of value chain are dispersed to those locations where perceived value is maximized or costs of value creation are minimized

The systematic reduction in production costs that occurs over the life of a product
First observed in aircraft industry where unit costs reduced by 80% each time output was doubled

Caused due to
Learning effects Economies of scale

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Cost savings that come from learning by doing Arises due to increased worker productivity and management efficiency Significant in cases of technologically complex task as there is a lot to be learned Experienced during start-up phase, cease after two or three years
Decline after this point comes from economies of scale.

Refers to reduction in unit cost by producing a large volume of a product

Sources:
Reduces fixed costs by spreading it over a large volume Ability of large firms to employ increasingly specialized equipment or personnel

The firm that moves down the experience curve most rapidly has a cost advantage over its competitors ` Serving the global market from a single location helps to establish low cost strategy ` Aim to rapidly build up sales aggressive marketing strategies and first-mover advantages
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Core competence: Skills within the firm that competitors cannot easily match or imitate Earn greater returns by transferring these skills and/or unique product offerings to foreign markets who lack them (McDonalds) Examples:
Consumer marketing skills of U.S. firms allowed them to dominate European consumer product market in 1960s and 70s

Management Myopia: Shortsightedness Headquarter dictates Subsidiary Knows it all

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National Controls & Barriers: Controls over market access monopoly etc Government regulations on advertising & promotions Industry specific norms

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Pressures for cost reductions

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Intense in industries of standardized, commodity type product that serve universal needs Major competitors are based in low-cost locations Consumers are powerful and face low switching costs

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Pressures for local responsiveness

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Differences in consumer tastes & preferences

North American families like pickup trucks while in Europe it is viewed as a utility vehicle for firms

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Differences in infrastructure & traditional practices

Consumer electrical system in North America is based on 110 volts; in Europe on 240 volts- Telecom 3gto 4g

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Differences in distribution channels

Germany has few retailers dominating the food market, while in Italy it is fragmented

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Host-Government demands
Health care system differences between countries require pharmaceutical firms to change operating procedures

Japanese automobile manufacturers customize car design to tastes of American consumers

Toyota released the Tundra with V8 engines which looks like a heavy-duty pickup truck with a powerful engine Nissan let U.S. engineers and planners be completely responsible for development of most vehicles sold in North America Honda customizes the Pilot, its next generation SUV according to tastes for American families who wanted bigger vehicles with three row seating

Business Environment : consists of all those factors that have a bearing on the business. Business decisions are therefore based on environmental factors.

An organization must have a strategy to achieve its missions/objectives/goals. A strategy is also defined as establishing a firmenvironment-fit

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INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

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EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

Its the internal factors that affect business. The internal factors are generally regarded as Controllable Factors because the company has control over these factors. It can alter or modify such factors. Example: facilities , personnel , organizational and functional means such as marketing-mix etc.

VALUE SYSTEMS : The value systems of the people in the top has an important bearing on missions, objectives , policies etc . Eg. Mr. J.R.D. Tata .. Social responsibility towards consumers , employees , stakeholders. MISSION & OBJECTIVES : The business domain , priorities , direction of development , philosophy are guided by the mission & objectives. Eg. Tata's decided to go transnational

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MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE & NATURE : Eg the composition of the board, extent of professionalization of management INTERNAL POWER RELATIONSHIP: the support the top management enjoys from shareholders , employees etc. HUMAN RESOURCES: the characteristics of recourses like skills , quality etc COMPANY IMAGE & BRAND EQUITY: the image of the company matters while raising finance , forming joint ventures, launching new products etc

OTHER FACTORS : Physical assets R&D & technological capacities Marking Resources : Quality of the marketing team , distribution which has a direct impact on marketing etc Financial Factors : financial policies , capital structure etc

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MICRO ENVIRONMENT

EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

MACRO ENVIRONMENT

The micro environment consists of the actors in the companys immediate environment. These are more closely linked to the company. They are : ` Suppliers : The importance of a reliable & smooth supply of raw- materials is essential. Importance is therefore given to vendor development . Change in Suppliers attitude will have an impact on business

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Customers : the task of business is to create & sustain customers. A business exits because of customers. Customers( including Indian customers) are going global in their shopping. Competitors: not just the other firms who make similar products but also those who compete for discretionary income.(pocket share) Marketing Intermediaries : the firms that aid the company in selling, promoting ad distributing to final consumers Publics: A public is any group that has an actual or potential interest in or impact on an organizations ability to achieve its goals. They can have a positive &/or a negative impact. Eg. Media publics ,local publics , citizens forum etc.

They are the larger forces that shape opportunities and/or pose threats to the company . They are more uncontrollable than the micro forces. The success depends on the companys adaptability to the environment . Eg. If the cost of imports increase due to an increase in import duty , the solution could be domestic production

Domestic Environment

Foreign Environment

Global Environment

Political

Sociocultural

Macro Environment

Economic

Technological

The political arena has a huge influence upon the regulation of businesses, and the spending power of consumers and other businesses. You must consider issues such as: ` 1.How stable is the political environment? ` 2.Will government policy influence laws that regulate or tax your business? ` 3.What is the government's position on marketing ethics? ` 4. What is the government's policy on the economy? ` 5. Does the government have a view on culture and religion? ` 6. Is the government involved in trading agreements such as EU, NAFTA, ASEAN, or others?

Political factors, are how and to what degree a government intervenes in the economy. Specifically, political factors include areas such as tax policy, labour law, environmental law, trade restrictions, tariffs, and political stability. Political factors may also include goods and services which the government wants to provide or be provided (merit goods) and those that the government does not want to be provided (demerit goods or merit bads). Furthermore, governments have great influence on the health, education, and infrastructure of a nation.

What are merit goods? The concept of a merit good introduced in economics by Richard Musgrave (1957, 1959) is a commodity which is judged that an individual or society should have on the basis of some concept of need, rather than ability and willingness to pay. Eg. Education , vaccines etc ` What are demerit goods? In economics, a demerit good is a good or service whose consumption is considered unhealthy, degrading, or otherwise socially undesirable due to the perceived negative effects on the consumers themselves. Eg. Tobacco , alcohol , gambling etc
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Marketers need to consider the state of a trading economy in the short and long-terms. This is especially true when planning for international marketing. You need to look at: ` Interest rates & Exchange rates ` The level of inflation. Rate of Inflation ` Employment level ` Per capita income ` Long-term prospects for the economy. ` Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

The social and cultural influences on business vary from country to country. It is very important that such factors are considered. Factors include: ` 1.What is the dominant religion? ` What is the Demographic Environment?(note ahead) ` 2.What are attitudes to foreign products and services? ` 3.Does language impact upon the diffusion of products onto markets? ` 4.How much time do consumers have for leisure? ` 5.What are the roles of men and women within society? ` 6.How long are the population living? Are the older generations wealthy? ` 7.Do the population have a strong/weak opinion on green issues?

Social factors include the cultural aspects and include health consciousness, population growth rate, age distribution, career attitudes and emphasis on safety. Trends in social factors affect the demand for a company's products and how that company operates. For example, an aging population may imply a smaller and less-willing workforce (thus increasing the cost of labor). Furthermore, companies may change various management strategies to adapt to these social trends (such as recruiting older workers).

What is Demographic Environment?

Statistical socio-economic characteristics or variables of a population, such as age, sex, education level, income level, marital status, occupation, religion, birth rate, death rate, average size of a family, average age at marriage. A census is a collection of the demographic factors associated with every member of a population.

Technology is vital for competitive advantage, and is a major driver of globalization. Consider the following points:
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1. Does technology allow for products and services to be made more cheaply and to a better standard of quality? 2.Do the technologies offer consumers and businesses more innovative products and services such as Internet banking, new generation mobile telephones, etc? 3.How is distribution changed by new technologies e.g. books via the Internet, flight tickets, auctions, etc? 4.Does technology offer companies a new way to communicate with consumers e.g. banners, Customer Relationship Management (CRM), etc?

Technological factors include technological aspects such as R&D activity, automation, technology incentives and the rate of technological change. They can determine barriers to entry, minimum efficient production level and influence outsourcing decisions. Furthermore, technological shifts can affect costs, quality, and lead to innovation.

Environmental factors include ecological and environmental aspects such as weather, climate, and climate change, which may especially affect industries such as tourism, farming, and insurance. Furthermore, growing awareness of the potential impacts of climate change is affecting how companies operate and the products they offer, both creating new markets and diminishing or destroying existing ones.

Legal factors include discrimination law, consumer law, antitrust law, employment law, and health and safety law. These factors can affect how a company operates, its costs, and the demand for its products. Eg. consumer law- Consumer Law India educates consumers against unscrupulous and unfair practices of traders/sellers. Also provides help in filing cases in consumer courts

Standardization is the process of developing and agreeing upon technical standards. A standard is a document that establishes uniform engineering or technical specifications, criteria, methods, processes, or practices. Formal standards organizations, such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) or the American National Standards Institute, are independent of the manufacturers of the goods for which they publish standards.

Techniques of Standardization:
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Simplification or variety control Codification value engineering / value analysis Statistical process

Uniform terminology is created Sizes and dimensions are co-ordinated and adapted Variety is reduced Function requirements and characteristics are specified Unambiguous testing methods are Established

Types of standardization process: ` Emergence as de facto standard: tradition, market domination, etc. ` Written by a Standards organization:
in a closed consensus process: Restricted membership and often having formal procedures for due-process among voting members in a full consensus process: usually open to all interested and qualified parties and with formal procedures for due-process considerations.
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Written by a government or regulatory body Written by a corporation, union, trade association, etc

Product Modification - any substantial change made to the attributes (size, shape, colour, style, price, etc.) of a product; modification of a product is usually undertaken in an attempt to revitalize it in order to increase demand. Product Modification is an attempt by companies to extend the length of the Product Life Cycle by making small, or big changes to a product to keep customers interested in the product, or cause them to buy accessory items to keep the product popular.

What are the driving forces causing companies to seek new and innovative ways to change the product so they can keep selling more? ` 1. The intensity of competition - the Competitive Environment, - in a globalized community of businesses all interlinked, it becomes easier and easier to copy other people's products, especially consumer electronics - so once you have launched a new product - there is a very short time before someone else will make a knock-off copy, or even make a slight improvement to capture your customers

2. The continued advances in technology, the Technological Environment. Technology makes it easier and easier to copy other products. Also, advanced in technology make it more possible to have to features to add on to a product that is several months old 3. The Economic Environment - the need for companies to make more money selling a product (maybe because the cycle was too short) 4. The Social / Cultural Environment - after the product has been used by the early adopters, it might the possible that other customer groups have slightly different uses, and this can be accommodated if the product packaging or features are altered slightly to make it more appealing to other demographics.

Sometimes Product Modification also includes modifying the packaging Almost everyone knows that Ketchup used to come in small glass bottles.

Several years ago they started to package it in plastic bottles.

International Marketing Strategy-To develop a strategy, involves 4 sets of inter related decisions 1. The first decision defines the business. This includes product and market scope, as to what type of products are to be served? Which needs are to be satisfied? and what technologies are to be used to satisfy these needs? 2. The Second decision is to determine the mission and set specific performance expectations-fixing the market share gains, project

International Marketing Strategy 3.The third decision is to formulate functional strategies for international Marketing, manufacturing, Research and Development (R&D) Service and physical distribution. 4.The fourth decision includes the resource allocation and establishing the budget for executing the plans.

Methods of entry, as a Strategy ` Exporting ` Contract Manufacturing. ` Management contract- small operations management outsourcing ` Assembly operations.- only assembling parts ` Fully owned manufacturing ` Counter trade- inter-country exchange ` Strategies Alliance and ` Third country location may not have customers in the country of manufacture

Methods of entry, as a Strategy JOINT VENTURES An international joint venture is an association between 2 or more firms to carry on a separate local entity JOINT OWNERSHIP VENTURE- license agreement In this venture, ownership and control are shared between a foreign firm and a local firm. This may be brought about by a foreign investor baying an interest in a local company, buying an interest in an existing operation of a foreign company or by both the parties jointly forming a new company. It is a method of overseas operation whereby a company in one country (the licensor) enters into an agreement with a company in another country ( the licensee) to use manufacturing, processing, trade mark or name, patent, technical assistance etc provided by the licensor. In exchange, the licensee pays the licensor some royalties or fees which are the major source of income to the licensor.

MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS This provides access to markets and the distribution net work. ` Vijay Mallayas U.B.Group (Indian largest brewing and distilling group) has acquired a small British company called Wiltshire brewery. The attraction of Wiltshire for U.B. is that the former offers a ready made chain of 40 public houses throughout England. This could be used by U.B.Group to market its beer brands like King fisher and U.B.Lager brands in U.K.There are also other advantages such as new technology and reduction in the level of competition.

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What is advertising Advertising is a form of communication intended to persuade an audience (viewers, readers or listeners) to purchase or take some action upon products, ideals, or services. It includes the name of a product or service and how that product or service could benefit the consumer, to persuade a target market to purchase or to consume that particular brand.

What is advertising
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Advertising can also serve to communicate an idea to a large number of people in an attempt to convince them to take a certain action.

What is international advertising? ` International advertising entails dissemination of a commercial message to target audiences in more than one country.
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a communication process that takes place in multiple cultures that differ in terms of values, communication styles, and consumption patterns.

The message may not get through The message may reach but not understood May be understood but not induce buying Impaired by NOISE- competitive ads. Other forms of promotion

Decentralized companies will leave the decision to the subsidiary National responsiveness Global Or a local agency to be used Area coverage does the agency cover the entire area Brand perception does the company want a local identification Or an international identification

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Art Direction visuals Copy text the language people think in Cultural considerations

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Media decisions available media in that country TV news paper habits of people as response to, and use of media Media Vehicles & expenditure local & global media Future

It is common knowledge that Internation Marketing has received an increased attention from Governments and Business firms in the four decades since the end of the second world war. 1. Competition within and without the country 2. International Advertising standardization 3. Pattern and Prototype Standardisation. 4. Standardised International Advertising strategy.

Competition within the country ` By competition within, we mean that, within the exporting country, there may be a lot of other organizations exporting the same goods to the same countries. ` When India tries to export these goods, especially to the fully developed countries like, U.S.A., U.K., CANADA AND FRANCE she has to face competition from Japan and other countries who are already exporting such goods to these countries.

Competition without or outside the country is more dangerous, i.e., instead of fighting at home, we are fighting outside the home country. This is the case of cocacola and Pepsi. They both are multimillionaire giants in U.S.A., but they are fighting with each other in their foreign market.

The central issue in the development of international advertising strategy is the extent to which the advertising should be standardized or adopted to the local needs. Market Criteria- Low competition, dis similar demographics, sparse distribution and low industrialization make the market criteria more effective.

Cultural Criteria- Cultural taboos, religious barriers towards foreign firms, culture Media Criteria- This pertains to the dis similar media from others, in the home market. Other Criteria- High importance for price etc

In pattern campaign, the overall theme, slogan and samples of art work, advertisement copy and merchandise materials are developed to provide the uniformity in direction. The Campaign is designed for use in multiple markets. What is new in pattern Standardization is that it is a pre planned effort to provide many or all the benefits attributed to Standardization.- mainly for industrial products

seven P principles ` Positioning position the product within a specific market segment. ` Promise competitiveness identification of consumer benefits. ` Point of differences - products differential advantage. ` Platform identification of media priority Communication of one or two most motivating product attributes. ` Priority Communication of one or two most motivating product attributes. ` Proof show effectiveness of product and ` presentation define important presentation characteristics.

International or Global promotion policy determines the positioning of the product abroad. The coordinating and integrating of promotional mix elements with other aspects of the marketing program is often more difficult in foreign markets.

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Target Market: Segmentation ..Targeting..Positioning.. The global Marketing Mix Global Product or service strategies Same product in home & host country Minor adaptations & sold in host country New Products sold Global Pricing Strategies Global distribution strategies Global communication strategies

Retailers might know how much of an item is sold using a store display versus how much is sold without the display, but until now, most retailers didnt know how much more they could have sold if the display was located in the direct path of the right shoppers. With shopping path research, retailers can better target the right consumers with the right messaging, products, and store design. With research in hand, retailers can throw out their old method of merchandising by assumption. The assumptions retailers make about shopper patterns are not always right

The individual-level probability model captures three aspects of a typical consumers in-store behavior: ` Which zone she visits ` How long she stays in each zone ` What purchases she makes within that zone

Recommendations by Peter Fader:

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Messaging With knowledge about which shopping zones are and are not generating traffic. Store Layout Certain areas of the store sell certain products better than others. This model can offer some guidance about which changes they ought to contemplate to get more bang for their buck, says Fader. Overall Store Design Consumers dont travel up and down the aisles as much as some retailers think., retailers could create a smoother and more satisfying overall shopping experience.

Types of Shoppers: ` Shopping Like a Traveling Salesman-A longer shopping experience is not necessarily a better one for todays busy consumers. Retailers should be getting many of their shoppers in and out of the store as quickly as possible, Fader notes. ` Efficient Shoppers are more like the traveling salesman and travel throughout the store in a specific sequence, picking items up based on locatio

CondTypes of Shoppers: 3. Inefficient Shoppers travel throughout the store in an unplanned sequence and typically have no specific shopping method. That kind of shopper is someone who might be more responsive to different kinds of messaging. 4. Impulse buying can play a role for both the Efficient and Inefficient shopper. Impulse buying is getting people to go where they wouldnt have gone otherwise.

Standardised International Advertising strategy: An advertising programme designed to respond to market similarities could develop to become a source of major international synergy.

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Positioning position the product within a specific market segment. Promise competitiveness identification of consumer benefits. Point of differences - products differential advantage. Platform identification of media priority Communication of one or two most motivating product attributes. Priority Communication of one or two most motivating product attributes. Proof show effectiveness of product and presentation define important presentation characteristics.

The four stages are as follows:

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1. Stage one: domestic in focus, with all activity concentrated in the home market. Whilst many organisations can survive like this, for example raw milk marketing, solely domestically oriented organisations are probably doomed to long term failure. 2. Stage two: home focus, but with exports (ethnocentric). Probably believes only in home values, but creates an export division. Usually ripe for the taking by stage four organisations. 3. Stage three: stage two organisations which realise that they must adapt their marketing mixes to overseas operations. The focus switches to multinational (polycentric) and adaption becomes paramount. 4. Stage four: global organisations which create value by extending products and programmes and focus on serving emerging global markets (geocentric). This involves recognising that markets around the world consist of similarities and differences. Its strategies are a combination of extension, adaptation and creation. It is unpredictable in behaviour and always alert to opportunities.

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Impetus to global marketing involvement Individuals or organisations may get involved in International Marketing in a rather unplanned way which gives the impetus to more formal and larger operations. This may happen in a number of ways: Foreign customers Unsolicited enquiries through word of mouth, visits, exhibitions, and experience through others may result in orders. This is often typical of small scale organisations. Importers Importers may be looking for products unavailable in domestic markets, for example, mangoes in the UK, or products which can be imported on more favourable terms. An example of these is flowers from Kenya to Holland. Intermediaries These may be of four types - domestic based export merchants, domestic based export agents, export management companies or cooperative organisations. These will be expanded on later in this text. Sometimes an intermediary may provide export services in an attempt to reduce their own costs on the export of their own produce by acting as a representative for other organisations. This is called "piggybacking". Other sources These may include banks, export organisations like ZIMTRADE, parastatals like the Kenyan Horticultural Crop Development Authority or even individual executives. Attitudes as precursors to global involvement Cavusgil3 (1984) developed a three stage model of export involvement, based on the fact that the opportunity to export may arise long before exporting behaviours became manifest. See figure 1.2.

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Attitudes as precursors to global involvement Cavusgil3 (1984) developed a three stage model of export involvement, based on the fact that the opportunity to export may arise long before exporting behaviours became manifest. See figure 1.2. Figure 1.2 Cavusgil's three stage model of export involvement According to Cavusgil attitudes are determined by the operating style of the organisation and cultural norms which prevail in the domestic market. An organisation's style may be defensive or prospective. The latter type of organisation may systematically, or in an ad hoc manner, search out international opportunities. Culture plays a vital part in the internationalisation process. Hakansson et al4. (1982) demonstrated that German and Swedish firms internationalise much earlier in their corporate history than do French or British companies. African culture is not littered with international marketers of note. This may be due to colonialisation late into the twentieth century. Behaviour as a global marketing impetus We saw earlier in the internationalisation process that organisations may evolve from exporting surplus or serving ad hoc enquiries to a more committed global strategy. This gradual change may involve moving from geographically adjacent markets to another, say, for example from the Southern African Development Conference (SADC) to Europe. However, not all globalisation takes place like this. In the case of fresh cut flowers, these may go to major, developed country consumer centres, for example from Harare to London or Amsterdam and Frankfurt. Lusaka or Nairobi may never see Zimbabwe flowers. In analysing behaviour one has not to generalise. What is certain, is that in all stages, the balance of opportunity and risk is considered. The context of internationalisation It is essential to see in what context individual organisations view internationalisation. The existing situation of the firm will affect its interest in and ability to internationalise. Such may be the low domestic quality and organisation that a firm could never export. It may not have the resources or the will. Internationalisation infrastructure Johanson and Mattison5 (1984) have explored the notion of differences in tasks facing organisations which internationalise. In low and high infrastructure situations. "Early starters" are likely to experiment or depend on contacts with experienced organisations which know the process. "Late starters" may use existing contacts as a "bridge" to new opportunities. They may also be pressurised by customers, supplies or competitors to get into joint venturing. Joint venturing, with its added infrastructure, may lead to rapid progress. If the organisation faces intense competition then it may be forced to up the pace and scale of foreign investment. Rising protectionism in recent years has given impetus to late starters to establish production facilities in target markets. Infrastructure for foreign operations may also change (firms also reduce their investment as well as invest). When this happens the perceived risk changes also. This discussion on international infrastructure concludes the factors which have led to internationalisation. It is a complex focus of internal and external factors and looking carefully at risk versus opportunities.

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The context of internationalisation It is essential to see in what context individual organisations view internationalisation. The existing situation of the firm will affect its interest in and ability to internationalise. Such may be the low domestic quality and organisation that a firm could never export. It may not have the resources or the will. Internationalisation infrastructure Johanson and Mattison5 (1984) have explored the notion of differences in tasks facing organisations which internationalise. In low and high infrastructure situations. "Early starters" are likely to experiment or depend on contacts with experienced organisations which know the process. "Late starters" may use existing contacts as a "bridge" to new opportunities. They may also be pressurised by customers, supplies or competitors to get into joint venturing. Joint venturing, with its added infrastructure, may lead to rapid progress. If the organisation faces intense competition then it may be forced to up the pace and scale of foreign investment. Rising protectionism in recent years has given impetus to late starters to establish production facilities in target markets. Infrastructure for foreign operations may also change (firms also reduce their investment as well as invest). When this happens the perceived risk changes also. This discussion on international infrastructure concludes the factors which have led to internationalisation. It is a complex focus of internal and external factors and looking carefully at risk versus opportunities.

Advertising , promotions and other forms of communication are critical tools for a global marketer Advertising has had several changes with the internet taking importance and prominence Marketing communications & programmes var