Mendel’s Law of

Inheritance
Genotypes, Phenotypes &
Punnett Square
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Mendel

• Modern genetics had its beginnings in an abbey garden,

where a monk named Gregor Mendel documented a
particulate mechanism of inheritance.

• He discovered the basic principles of heredity by breeding

garden peas in carefully planned experiments.

• His approach to science had been influenced at the University

of Vienna by one of his professors: the physicist Doppler.
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 Mendel’s work

• In order to study inheritance, Mendel chose to use peas,

probably as they are available in many varieties.

• The use of plants also allowed strict control over the

mating.

• He chose to study only characters that varied in an ‘either-

or’ rather than a ‘more-or-less’ manner. 3
Genetic crosses

• To cross two different pea

plants, Mendel used an
artist’s brush.

• He transferred pollen from a

true breeding white flower to
the carpel of a true breeding
purple flower.
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 Tracking Characteristics

• Mendel tracked heritable

characters for 3 generations.

• When F1 hybrids were

allowed to self-pollinate a
3:1 ratio of the 2 varieties
occurred in the F2
generation. 5
Mendel’s terminology

• True breeding: When the plants self-pollinate, all

their offspring are of the same variety.

• Hybridization: Mating, or crossing, of two varieties.

• Monohybrid cross: A cross between two parents

that breed true for different versions of a single
trait. 6
Mendel’s terminology

• P generation: True breeding parents.

• F1 generation: (first filial) Hybrid offspring of the P

generation.

• F2 generation: (second filial) Offspring from the self-

fertilization of the F1 hybrids.
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Genetics terms you need to know:

• Gene – a unit of heredity;

a section of DNA sequence
encoding a single protein
• Genome – the entire set
of genes in an organism

• Alleles – two genes that occupy the same position

on homologous chromosomes and that cover the
same trait (like ‘flavors’ of a trait).
• Locus – a fixed location on a strand of DNA where
a gene or one of its alleles is located.
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• Homozygous – having identical genes (one from each parent)
for a particular characteristic.
• Heterozygous – having two different genes for a particular
characteristic.

• Dominant – the allele of a gene that masks or suppresses the

expression of an alternate allele; the trait appears in the
heterozygous condition.
• Recessive – an allele that is masked by a dominant allele; does
not appear in the heterozygous condition, only in 9
What is Genetics?

• All body cells contain “Blueprints” with instructions as to how

an animal will look or act etc.

• One Gene comes from each parent (pairs)

• Genes are divided into sections (Chromosomes) that carry

genes

• Sex chromosomes: Male = XY, Female = XX 10

 Genotypes

• The genotype refers to the entire set of genes in a cell, an organism, or an

individual. A gene for a particular character
or trait may exist in
two forms; one is
dominant (E) and the
other is recessive (e).

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 Dominant and Recessive Genes

• Dominant Genes
– One gene overshadows the other.

• Recessive Gene
–The gene that is overshadowed by a dominant
gene. 12
 Examples of Genotypes

• There are three basic genotypes for a

particular
character:
–AA = homozygous dominant
–Aa = heterozygous
–aa = homozygous recessive 13
 Phenotypes

• Phenotype is the physical

appearance or other
characteristic of an organism as
a result of the interaction of its
genotype and the environment.
Some examples would be:
• Size
• Shape
• Color 14
 The Punnett Square

• Is a square grid used in genetics to calculate the

frequencies of the different genotypes and
phenotypes among the offspring of a cross

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Genotypes and Phenotypes of
Offspring's
• Use a Punnett Square

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Punnett Square Example

B B
b
b

Traits for color

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Punnett Square Example Cont..

B B
b Bb Bb
b Bb Bb

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If red flower were dominant over white flower, what color would the F1 generation be?

Why are the

offspring a
different color
from either
parent?

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Non – Mendelian Inheritance

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Non-Mendelian Genetics

• Why non-mendelian genetics?

• Some characters don’t follow Mendel’s law.
• In those cases where Mendel's proposals are not valid and the expected
phenotype rates differ.

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Inheritance patterns are not-distributed in accordance with Mendel's rules.
The expected phenotype ratio in these cases where Mendel's proposals are not applicable:
1. Multiple alleles
2. Lethal genotypes
3. Incomplete dominance
4. Codominance
5. Penetrance
6. Expressivity
7. Pleiotropy
8. Epistasis

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Mendel’s law

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Gregor Mendel’s principles form the base for the
understanding of heredity and variation. Although
Mendel’s work failed to discuss thoroughly the
‘factors’ or genes he mentioned in his laws of
inheritance, his findings prompted other scientists
to probe further into the mystery of heredity.
Several researches were conducted after the
rediscovery of Mendel’s work. 24
If red flower were dominant over white flower, what color would the F1 generation be?

Why are the

offspring a
different color
from either
parent?

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1. Incomplete Dominance:
-The heterozygous phenotype (i.e.
Rr) is between the two
homozygous phenotypes
-Neither allele is dominant over
another
-Example: a red flower crosses Genotype Phenotype
with a white flower to make RR (homozygous) Red
pink flower. rr (homozygous) White
Rr (heterozygous) Pink 26
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Incomplete Dominance Practice Problem

A species of mice are controlled by incomplete dominance. The two alleles are
black (B) and white (W). The heterozygous genotype is expressed as gray fur.

Give the phenotypes:

BB:
WW:
BW:

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Incomplete Dominance Practice Problem

Cross a gray male mouse with a white female mouse.

List the probabilities of having the

following offspring phenotypes:

Black:

Gray:

White:

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How are these two phenotypes different?

Incomplete dominance Codominance

Neither allele is expressed Both alleles are expressed
(blended) (mixed)

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2. Codominance

Both alleles are clearly expressed

in the phenotype of a
heterozygous.

Some chickens:
• Allele for black (B) and white
(W) feathers are codominant.
• Heterozygous chickens are
speckled with black and white
feathers (erminette)
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Codominance Practice Problem

A species of chickens are controlled by codominance. The two alleles are black (B)
and white (W). The heterozygous genotype is expressed as black and white
speckled chickens.

Give the phenotypes:

BB:
WW:
BW:

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 Codominance Practice Problem
Cross a speckled male with a speckled female.

List the probabilities of having the following offspring phenotypes:

Black:

Gray:

Speckled:
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There are important exceptions to
many of Mendel’s principles
– Not all genes show simple
patterns of inheritance
– Majority of genes have more than
2 alleles
– Many important traits are
controlled by more than one gene
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3. Multiple alleles
• genes with more than two alleles
• We’ve been working with two alleles (R/r)
• Human Blood type has more than two alleles

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SUMMARY

Points to Remember in Incomplete Dominance:

1. Only the phenotype of the heterozygote is blended (or
intermediate).
2.The alleles of the parents (which, in this case, are red and
white-flowered plants) are still distinct and separate from
each other.
3.The genotypic ratio also becomes the phenotypic ratio
since half of the gametes of the offspring carry half of
both the parents.
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 Examples for Incomplete Dominance

-include petal coloration in some flower species

(such as carnations and four o’clock flowers),
curliness of human hair, and human
hypercholesterolemia (also called high
cholesterol, is the presence of high levels of
cholesterol in the blood).
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PRACTICE

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PRACTICE

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 Sex-linked Genes

• Genes located on the X chromosomes are called X-

linked genes. Genes on the Y chromosomes are
called Y-linked genes.
• An example of an X-linked trait in humans is
hemophilia
• Another example of an X-linked trait is color
blindness.
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Genotypes and phenotypes of
color blindness in humans

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 Y-linked trait

• hypertrichosis pinnae auris- a

genetic disorder in humans that
causes hairy ears. Since the trait is
found in the Y chromosome, then
only males can have the trait. A
father who has the condition will
pass it on to all his sons, and they, in
turn, will pass it on to their own sons. 48
Sex-limited Traits

• Sex-limited genes are genes that are present in both sexes of sexually

reproducing species but are expressed in only one sex and remain
'turned off' in the other. In other words, sex-limited genes cause the two
sexes to show different traits or phenotypes, despite having the same
genotype. 
• These traits are carried on autosomal chromosomes.

• Milk production, and reproductive traits.

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Sex-Limited Traits

• Sex-limited traits are generally autosomal, which

means that they are not found on the X or Y
chromosomes.
• Sex-limited traits are expressed in only one gender
• Both male and female cattle however possess a
gene pair for lactation. The gene for lactation (L) is
dominant over the non-lactating gene.
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Sex-Influenced Traits

• also autosomal, meaning that their genes are not carried on the sex
chromosomes.
• In this case, the difference is in the ways the two genders express the
genes.
• One classic example of a sex-influenced trait is pattern baldness in
humans, though the condition is not restricted to males
• influenced by the hormones in the individual, particularly by the
hormone testosterone

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