Really complex deformation in rocks can produce patterns as complex as the swirls in a foam on a stream, and events in one

area don't necessarily tell you anything about events elsewhere.

Important structures in rocks

Folds Faults Joints

Folding

FOLDS
Folds are defined as undulations or bends that are developed in the rocks of the Earths crust as a result of the stresses to which these rocks have been subjected to, from time to time, in the past history of the Earth.

Folds can occur in all scales!

In areas of active mountain building, as for example here in the front ranges of the Himalayas, folds bulge up the landscape. The upward moving parts (called antiforms) create hills while the areas that have gone down relative to the hills (called synforms) collect detritus eroded from the surrounding countryside.

These folds from the island of Syros only have a wavelength of a few millimetres.

Folds can occur in different shapes!

Buckled folds

 Rocks with really complex histories often look like this. Often there is no discernible pattern to the folding.

Parts of Fold and Terminologies

Limbs Axial plane Axis of the fold Plunge of the fold Anticline and syncline

 Limbs are the sides of a fold Axial plane is the imaginary plane bisecting between the two limbs of a fold Axis of the fold is the line of intersection of the axial plane with any bed of the fold When the fold axis is inclined the angle which it makes with the horizontal as measured in a vertical plane is called the plunge of the fold

Anticline and syncline: When the beds are up-folded into an arch like structure, it is called an anticline Conversely, when the beds are down-folded into a trough like form, the structure is called a syncline.

Axial plane

Plunge - the inclination of the fold axis

Folded Structures
1. Anticlines 2. Synclines 3. Monoclines 4. Basins 5. Domes

Types of fold
On the basis of position of Axial plane
Symmetrical fold Asymmetrical folds Overturned folds

Types of folds

Symmetrical

Asymmetrical

Overturned

Recumbent Folds- Fold axis is horizontal

Based on degree of compression of beds

Open folds

Closed folds

Miscellaneous folds
Monocline Homocline Chevron folds

Monocline

Chevron folds

Domes are groups of strata centrally uplifted from below and sloping away in all directions. It always appears as an anticline Basins are reverse of domes that are centrally depressed and sloping towards a common centre.

Domes Oldest rock in center

Basins Youngest rock in center

Causes of folding
Lateral compression Intrusion of magma Landslides Creeping of slopes Differential compaction Isostatic settling Subsidence due to solution cavities

Lateral compression

Folding due to intrusion of magma

Folding due to landslides

Creep

Folding due to differential compaction

Folding due to isostatic settling

Folding due to subsidence

Rocks suitable for studying folds

Rocks suitable for the study of structures

Folds may occur in all kinds of rocks such as igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks! But all rocks are not suitable for studying structures Sedimentary rocks are ideal for study of structures as they are characterised by the presence of beddings Igneous rocks are not suitable for structures as they bear uniform textural behaviour Metamorphic rocks such as gneisses and schists also permits study of structures.

A common misconception is that rocks can only fold when they are nearly molten. These outcrops tell a different story. Rocks like these limestones can fold even at the Earth's surface provided they are given enough time. A fold like this could take a hundred thousand years to grow.

How Is Rock Deformed?

Tectonics forces continuously squeeze, stretch, bend, and break rock in the lithosphere.

Stress
Uniform stress is a condition in which the stress is equal in all directions.
In rocks it is also confining stress because any body of rock in the lithosphere is confined by the rock around it.

Differential stress is stress that is not equal in all directions.

Differential Stress
The three kinds of differential stress are:
Tensional stress, which stretches rocks. Compressional stress, which squeezes them. Shear stress, which causes slippage and translation.

Stages of Deformation
Strain describes the deformation of a rock. When a rock is subjected to increasing stress, it passes through three stages of deformation in succession:
Elastic deformation is a reversible change in the volume or shape of a stressed rock.. Ductile deformation is an irreversible change in shape and/or volume of a rock that has been stressed beyond the elastic limit. Fracture occurs in a solid when the limits of both elastic and ductile deformation are exceeded.

Ductile Deformation Versus Fracture

A brittle substance tends to deform by fracture. A ductile substance deforms by a change of shape. The higher the temperature, the more ductile and less brittle a solid becomes. Rocks are brittle at the Earths surface, but at depth, where temperatures are high because of the geothermal gradient, rocks become ductile.

Confining Stress
Confining stress is a uniform squeezing of rock owing to the weight of all of the overlying strata. High confining stress hinders the formation of fractures and so reduces brittle properties. Reduction of brittleness by high confining stress is a second reason why solid rock can be bent and folded by ductile deformation.

Marble sample:

Ductile

Brittle

Strain Rate
The term used for time-dependent deformation of a rock is strain rate.
Strain rate is the rate at which a rock is forced to change its shape or volume.

Strain rates in the Earth are about 10-14 to 10-15/s. The lower the strain rate, the greater the tendency for ductile deformation to occur.

Enhancing Ductility
High temperatures, high confining stress, and low strain rates (characteristic of the deeper crust and mantle):
Reduce brittle properties. Enhance the ductile properties of rock.

Composition Affects Ductility (1)

The composition of a rock has pronounced effects on its properties.
Quartz, garnet, and olivine are very brittle. Mica, clay, calcite,and gypsum are ductile.

The presence of water in a rock reduces brittleness and enhances ductile properties. Water affects properties by weakening the chemical bonds in minerals and by forming films around minerals grains.

ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS
Change in attitude: Due to folding, same layer may be repeated or a different layer may be encountered. If it happens unexpectedly and the encountered layers are of undesirable nature, the safety of the structure will be adversely affected. Shattering of rocks: Folding is the response of the rocks to the induced stresses. These stresses are often strong enough to break or shatter or develop cracks at the points of maximum concentration. The shattered rocks are weak in strength and pervious in character. Such rocks cannot be trusted as roofs and floors of tunnels or as foundations in dams. If it is not possible to avoid, proper treatments has to be given before construction

ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS

Strained nature: The stresses that have acted on the rocks during their folding are generally absorbed by undergoing strain. When disturbed, these rocks release energy leading to rock bursts during tunneling or excavations.

Attitude of beds
Attitude refers to the three-dimensional orientation or positioning of a given geological structures. The attitude of a planar geological feature like a rock bed or a joint or a fold is defined by their strike and dip.

Dip and Strike

The dip is the angle in degrees between a horizontal plane and the inclined plane, measured down from horizontal. The strike is the compass direction of the horizontal line formed by the intersection of a horizontal plane and an inclined plane.

Fault
Faults are fractures in the Earth's crust along which one side moves with respect to the other. There are many types of faults ranging in size from a few tens of meters to hundreds of kilometers in dimension.

Aerial view of the Pu`u Kapukapu fault scarp

Mount St. Helens, Washington Scientists measure the distance between two benchmarks spanning the fault scarp of a thrust fault on the crater floor of Mount St. Helens. This scarp developed on the crater floor in 1981 as magma rose into the lava dome (backgound) before erupting onto its surface. The pressure exerted by the rising magma against rocks surrounding the conduit caused the crater floor to fracture along a plane gently inclined toward the dome. Material above the fault (person kneeling on upper surface) was pushed over material below the fault (person in lower right). Scientists measured an increasing rate of movement of this thrust fault before two eruptions in June and October 1981, which helped them to predict both eruptions accurately.

One of the world's most famous faults known is the San Andreas Fault in California. It stretches 1000 km from the Imperial Valley in southern California, to the Point Arena on the northern coast. The fault line is also 9km in depth. It marks the boundary between the North America and the Pacific tectonic plates. San Andreas is known as a strike slip fault; it has displaced rocks for hundreds of miles.

Pre-earthquake view of Halape

Post-earthquake view of Halape

To describe the displacement along a dip-slip fault, we use nomenclature that arose from miners who excavated shafts along fault zones

The rock surface above the mineralized fault zone is called the hanging wall (Note the lantern is hung on the hanging wall)

The rock surface below the mineralized fault zone is the foot wall (Note the miner is standing on the foot wall)

Types of faults

Faults in which the movement is primarily parallel to the dip (or inclination) of the fault surface are called dip-slip faults.

Dip-slip faults are classified as normal faults when the hanging wall block moves down relative to the footwall block.

Most normal faults are small, having displacements of only a meter or so

Reverse faults are dip-slip faults in which the hanging wall block moves up relative to the footwall block

Strike-slip faults exhibit mainly horizontal displacement parallel to the strike of the fault surface

 Strike-slip faults arise from shear stresses. The San Andreas is a strike-slip fault. Apparently, movement (more than 600 km) has been occurring along it for at least 65 million years.

Fractures along which no appreciable displacement has occurred are called joints

Columnar joints form when igneous rocks cool and develop shrinkage fractures that produce elongated, pillar like columns

Exfoliation joints

Groundwater

 What is ground water and how does it move?  What is the importance of groundwater?  What are the advantages of groundwater?  What are aquifers and their types?  What is groundwater prospecting?  What are some environmental problems with groundwater?  What are the geological work of groundwater?  How is karst topography produced?

Advantages of Ground Water

 It has a suitable composition in most cases and is free from turbidity, objectionable colours and pathogenic organisms requiring not much treatment.  It is relatively much safe from hazards of chemical, radiogenic and biological pollution to which surface water bodies are badly exposed.  Its supplies are not quickly affected by drought and other climatic changes and hence are more dependable compared to surface waters.  Being available locally in many cases may be tapped and distributed at much lesser costs using very little network of pipes. In fact, in many areas it is directly pumped up by the users.

Sources of groundwater
Meteoric water It is the water derived mainly from rain. The water directly infiltrated or through streams (influent streams) finally joins the groundwater. Connate water This is the water that is present right from the deposition of sediment at the time of formation of sedimentary rocks Juvenile water Water condensed from steam emanated from molten magma.

Hydrological cycle

Zones of groundwater

Water table

Influent and effluent streams

Influent streams

Effluent streams

Aquifers and wells

A well is a manmade hole in the ground from which water can be withdrawn Aquifer is a formation that is capable to yield appreciable quantity of water by gravity

Types of aquifers
Unconfined aquifer Confined aquifer Perched aquifer

Unconfined aquifer

Confined or Artesian aquifers

Confined or Artesian aquifers

Figure 17.16

Perched Aquifer and Perched Water table.

Perched aquifer

CONE OF DEPRESSION

Yield of wells

Flow to a well penetrating an unconfined aquifer

Spring

Spring formed due to slope in a valley

Spring formed due to the presence of an impervious obstruction against an aquifer or water-table.

Spring formed due to the presence of a fault across a water bearing formation.

Artesian spring formed when a pervious layer is sandwiched between two impervious layers.

Example of land subsidence due to groundwater lowering

Caverns and Karst Topography

Figure 17.1

Fig. 20 Speleothems

Fig. 21 Soda straw stalactite

Fig. 22 Popcorn Stalactites

Fig. 23 Curtain Stalagtites

Figure 17.24

Fig. 24 Infrared image showing an area of karst topography

Sink hole formed due to collapse of cavern

Geysers occur where extensive underground chambers exist within hot igneous rocks.

This geyser emits 45,000 litres of hot water and steam per hour!