M-ary signaling

Binary communications sends one of only 2 levels; 0 or 1 There is another way: combine several bits into symbols 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 Combining two bits at a time gives rise to 4 symbols; a 4-ary signaling

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A few definitions
We used to work with bit length Tb. Now we have a new parameter which we call symbol length,T
1 Tb 0 1

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Bit length-symbol length relationship



When we combine n bits into one symbol; the following relationships hold T=nTb- symbol length n=logM bits/symbol T=TbxlogM- symbol length All logarithms are base 2

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Example
If 8 bits are combined into one symbol, the resulting symbol is 8 times wider Using n=8, we have M=28=256 symbols to pick from Symbol length T=nTb=8Tb

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Defining baud
When we combine n bits into one symbol, numerical data rate goes down by a factor of n We define baud as the number of symbols/sec Symbol rate is a fraction of bit rate R=symbol rate=Rb/n=Rb/logM For 8-level signaling, baud rate is 1/3 of bit rate

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Why M-ary?
Remember Nyquist bandwidth? It takes a minimum of R/2 Hz to transmit R pulses/sec. If we can reduce the pulse rate, required bandwidth goes down too M-ary does just that. It takes Rb bits/sec and turns it into Rb/logM pulses sec.

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Issues in transmitting 9600 bits/sec



Want to transmit 9600 bits/sec. Options:

Nyquists minimum bandwidth:9600/2=4800 Hz Full roll off raised cosine:9600 Hz

None of them fit inside the 4 KHz wide phone lines Go to a 16 - level signaling, M=16. Pulse rate is reduced to R=Rb/logM=9600/4=2400 Hz

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Using 16-level signaling

Go to a 16-level signaling, M=16. Pulse rate is then cut down to R=Rb/logM=9600/4=2400 pulses/sec To accommodate 2400 pulses /sec, we have several options. Using sinc we need only 1200 Hz. Full roll-off needs 2400Hz Both fit within the 4 KHz phone line bandwidth

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Bandwidth efficiency
Bandwidth efficiency is defined as the number of bits that can be transmitted within 1 Hz of bandwidth L=Rb/BT bits/sec/Hz In binary communication using sincs, BT=Rb/2--> L=2 bits/sec/Hz

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M-ary bandwidth efficiency

In M-ary signaling , pulse rate is given by R=Rb/logM. Full roll-off raised cosine bandwidth is BT=R= Rb/logM. Bandwidth efficiency is then given by L=Rb/BT=logM bits/sec/Hz For M=2, binary we have 1 bit/sec/Hz. For M=16, we have 4 bits/sec/Hz

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M-ary bandwidth
Summarizing, M-ary and binary bandwidth are related by BM-ary=Bbinary/logM Clearly , M-ary bandwidth is reduced by a factor of logM compared to the binary bandwidth

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8-ary bandwidth
Let the bit rate be 9600 bits/sec. Binary bandwidth is nominally equal to the bit rate, 9600 Hz We then go to 8-level modulation (3 bits/symbol) M-ary bandwidth is given by BM-ary=Bbinary/logM=9600/log8=3200 Hz

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Bandwidth efficiency numbers



Here are some numbers n(bits/symbol) M(levels) 1 2 2 4 3 8 4 16 8 256

L(bits/sec/Hz) 1 2 3 4 8

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Symbol energy vs. bit energy

Each symbol is made up of n bits. It is not therefore surprising for a symbol to have n times the energy of a bit E(symbol)=nEb
Eb
E

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QPSK quadrature phase shift keying

 

This is a 4 level modulation. Every two bits is combined and mapped to one of 4 phases of an RF signal These phases are 45o,135o,225o,315o
Symbol energy

2E  cos c t  (2i  1) T  ! 1,2,3, 4 ,i 2Tf si (t) !  T ,0 e t e T  4   0 

Symbol width
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QPSK constellation

01

00 45o E 10

11

2 J1 t ! cos2Tfc t T 2 J 2 t ! si 2Tfc t T

Basis functions

S=[0.7 E,- 0.7 E]

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QPSK decision regions

01

00

11

10

Decision regions re color-coded

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QPSK error rate

Symbol error rate for QPSK is given by
E Pe ! erfc( ) 2No This brings up the distinction between symbol error and bit error. They are not the same!

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Symbol error
Symbol error occurs when received vector is assigned to the wrong partition in the constellation
11 s2 s1 00

When s1 is mistaken for s2, 00 is mistaken for 11

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Symbol error vs. bit error

When a symbol error occurs, we might suffer more than one bit error such as mistaking 00 for 11. It is however unlikely to have more than one bit error when a symbol error occurs
00 00 10 11 10 10 11 11 10 symbols = 20 bits
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10 10

Sym.error=1/10 Bit error=1/20

Interpreting symbol error

Numerically, symbol error is larger than bit error but in fact they are describing the same situation; 1 error in 20 bits In general, if Pe is symbol error
Pe e BER e Pe log M

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Symbol error and bit error for QPSK



We saw that symbol error for QPSK was

E Pe ! erfc( ) 2No Assuming no more than 1 bit error for each symbol error, BER is half of symbol error 1 E BER ! erfc( ) 2 2No Remember symbol energy E=2Eb

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QPSK vs. BPSK

Lets compare the two based on BER and bandwidth BER Bandwidth BPSK QPSK BPSK QPSK
Rb/2

 Eb  1 1  erfc  Eb  erfc    2  N o  2  N o 
EQUAL

Rb

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M-phase PSK (MPSK)

If you combine 3 bits into one symbol, we have to realize 23=8 states. We can accomplish this with a single RF pulse taking 8 different phases 45o apart
2E  cos c t  (i  1) T  ! 1,...,8 ,i 2Tf si (t) !  T   ,0 e t e T 0 

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8-PSK constellation
Distribute 8 phasors uniformly around a circle of radius E
45o

Decision region

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Symbol error for MPSK

We can have M phases around the circle separated by 2 /M radians. It can be shown that symbol error probability is approximately given by

 E  T , M u 4  P $ erfc sin e  No M 

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)



MPSK was a phase modulation scheme. All amplitudes are the same QAM is described by a constellation consisting of combination of phase and amplitudes The rule governing bits-to-symbols are the same, i.e. n bits are mapped to M=2n symbols

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16-QAM constellation using Gray coding

16-QAM has the following constellation  Note gray coding 0000 0001 0011 where adjacent symbols differ by only 1 bit 1000 1001 1011


0010

1010

1100

1101

1111

1110

0100

0101

0111

0110

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Vector representation of 16-QAM



There are 16 vectors, each defined by a pair of coordinates. The following 4x4 matrix describes the 16-QAM constellation

  3,3  1,3 1,3 3,3    3,1  1,1 1,1 3,1  [ai ,bi ] !   3, 1  1, 1 1, 1 3, 1     3, 3  1, 3 1, 3 3, 3  

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What is energy per symbol in QAM?



We had no trouble defining energy per symbol E for MPSK. For QAM, there is no single symbol energy. There are many We therefore need to define average symbol energy Eavg
1 M 2 ! ai  bi2 M i !1

Eavg

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Eavg for 16-QAM



Using the [ai,bi] matrix and using E=ai^2+bi^2 we get one energy per signal
18 10 10   10 2 2 E !  10 2 2  18 10 10  18  10  10   18 

Eavg=10
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Symbol error for M-ary QAM

With the definition of energy in mind, symbol error is approximated by
2Eavg    1 erfc   Pe $ 2 1  M   2 M  1 No 

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Familiar constellations
Here are a few golden oldies

V.22 600 baud 1200 bps

V.22 bis 600 baud 2400 bps

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V.32 bis 2400 baud 9600 bps

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M-ary FSK
Using M tones, instead of M phases/amplitudes is a fundamentally different way of M-ary modulation The idea is to use M RF pulses. The frequencies chosen must be orthogonal
2E si t ! cos2Tfi t ,0 e t e T T i ! 1,..., M

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MFSK constellation: 3-dimensions



MFSK is different from MPSK in that each signal sits on an orthogonal axis(basis)
J3

2 J i t ! cos2Tfi t , T 0et eT i ! 1,..., M

E
J2

s3 E

s1=[E ,0, 0] s2=[0,E, 0] s3=[0,0,E]

E s1
J1

s2

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Orthogonal signals: How many dimensions, how many signals?



We just saw that in a 3 dimensional space, we can have no more than 3 orthogonal signals Equivalently, 3 orthogonal signals dont need more than 3 dimensions because each can sit on one dimension Therefore, number of dimensions is always less than or equal to number of signals

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How to pick the tones?

Orthogonal FSK requires tones that are orthogonal. Two carrier frequencies separated by integer multiples of period are orthogonal

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Example
Take two tones one at f1 the other at f2. T must cover one or more periods for the integral to be zero

2 cos2Tf t cos2Tf t dt ! cos 2T  f

1 2 0

 f2 dt 0 1 4 4 2 4 44 4 3
1 averages to zero

 cos2T  f1  f2 dt 0 1 4 4 2 4 44 4 3
averages to zero i T = i/(f1 - f2) ; i = integer

Take f1=1000 and T=1/1000. Then if f2=2000 , the two are orthogonal so will f2=3000,4000 etc

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MFSK symbol error

Here is the error expression with the usual notations
 E  1  Pe e  M  1 erfc  2  2N o 

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Spectrum of M-ary signals

So far Eb/No, i.e. power, has been our main concern. The flip side of the coin is bandwidth. Frequently the two move in opposite directions Lets first look at binary modulation bandwidth

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BPSK bandwidth
Remember BPSK was obtained from a polar signal by carrier modulation We know the bandwidth of polar NRZ using square pulses was BT=Rb. It doesnt take much to realize that carrier modulation doubles this bandwidth

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Illustrating BPSK bandwidth

The expression for baseband BPSK (polar) bandwidth is SB(f)=2Ebsinc2(Tbf)


2/Tb=2Rb

BPSK

1/Tb

BT=2Rb
fc-/Tb fc fc+/Tb

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BFSK as a sum of two RF streams



BFSK can be thought of superposition of two unipolar signals, one at f1 and the other at f2
1

BFSK for 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1

0.5

0.8

0.6

-0.5
0.4

-1
0.2

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

-0.2

-0.4

0.5
-0.6

0
-0.8

-1 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

-0.5

-1 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

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Modeling of BFSK bandwidth

Each stream is just a carrier modulated unipolar signal. Each has a sinc spectrum

1/Tb=Rb
(f

BT=2 (f+2Rb
(f= (f2-f1)/2

f1

fc fc=(f1+f2)/2

f2

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Example: 1200 bps bandwidth

The old 1200 bps standard used BFSK modulation using 1200 Hz for mark and 2200 Hz for space. What is the bandwidth? Use BT=2(f+2Rb (f=(f2-f1)/2=(2200-1200)/2=500 Hz BT=2x500+2x1200=3400 Hz This is more than BPSK of 2Rb=2400 Hz

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Sundes FSK
We might have to pick tones f1 and f2 that are not orthogonal. In such a case there will be a finite correlation between the tones V
Tb

2 V ! cos(2Tf1t) cos(2Tf2 t)dt Tb 0

1

Good points,zero correlation

2(f2-f1)Tb

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Picking the 2nd zero crossing: Sundes FSK

If we pick the second zc term (the first term puts the tones too close) we get 2(f2-f1)Tb=2--> (f=1/2Tb=Rb/2 remember (f is (f2-f1)/2  Sundes FSK bandwidth is then given by BT=2(f+2Rb=Rb+2Rb=3Rb  The practical bandwidth is a lot smaller


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Sundes FSK bandwidth

Due to sidelobe cancellation, practical bandwidth is just BT=2(f=Rb

1/Tb=Rb
(f (f

BT=2 (f+2Rb
(f= (f2-f1)/2

f1

fc fc=(f1+f2)/2

f2

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B FSK example
A BFSK system operates at the 3rd zero crossing of V-Tb plane. If the bit rate is 1 Mbps, what is the frequency separation of the tones? The 3rd zc is for 2(f2-f1)Tb=3. Recalling that (f=(f2-f1)/2 then (f =0.75/Tb Then (f =0.75/Tb=0.75x106=750 KHz And BT=2((f +Rb)=2(0.75+1)106=3.5 MHz

 

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Point to remember
FSK is not a particularly bandwidth-friendly modulation. In this example, to transmit 1 Mbps, we needed 3.5 MHz. Of course, it is working at the 3rd zero crossing that is responsible Original Sundes FSK requires BT=Rb=1 MHz

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Bandwidth of MPSK modulation

MPSK bandwidth review

In MPSK we used pulses that are log2M times wider tan binary hence bandwidth goes down by the same factor. T=symbol width=Tblog2M For example, in a 16-phase modulation, M=16, T=4Tb. Bqpsk=Bbpsk/log2M= Bbpsk/4

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MPSK bandwidth
MPSK spectrum is given by SB(f)=(2Eblog2M)sinc2(Tbflog2M)
Set to 1 for zero crossing BW Tbflog2M=1 -->f=1/ Tbflog2M =Rb/log2M 1/logM f/Rb
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BT= Rb/log2M Notice normalized frequency

53

Bandwidth after carrier modulation



What we just saw is MPSK bandwidth in baseband A true MPSK is carrier modulated. This will only double the bandwidth. Therefore, Bmpsk=2Rb/log2M

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QPSK bandwidth
QPSK is a special case of MPSK with M=4 phases. Its baseband spectrum is given by SB(f)=2Esinc2(2Tbf)

B=0.5Rb--> half of BPSK 0.5 1 f/Rb

After modulation: Bqpsk=Rb

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Some numbers
Take a 9600 bits/sec data stream Using BPSK: B=2Rb=19,200 Hz (too much for 4KHz analog phone lines) QPSK: B=19200/log24=9600Hz, still high Use 8PSK:B= 19200/log28=6400Hz Use 16PSK:B=19200/ log216=4800 Hz. This may barely fit

 

  

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MPSK vs.BPSK
Lets say we fix BER at some level. How do bandwidth and power levels compare?
Bm-ary/Bbinary (Avg.power)M/(Avg.power)bin 0.5 0.34 dB 1/3 3.91 dB 1/4 8.52 dB 1/5 13.52 dB Lesson: By going to multiphase modulation, we save bandwidth but have to pay in increased power, But why?

M 4 8 16 32


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Power-bandwidth tradeoff
The goal is to keep BER fixed as we increase M. Consider an 8PSK set.

What happens if you go to 16PSK? Signals get closer hence higher BER Solution: go to a larger circle-->higher energy

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Additional comparisons
Take a 28.8 Kb/sec data rate and lets compare the required bandwidths
BPSK: BT=2(Rb)=57.6 KHz BFSK: BT = Rb =28.8 KHz ...Sundes FSK QPSK: BT=half of BPSK=28.8 KHz 16-PSK: BT=quarter of BPSK=14.4 KHz 64-PSK: BT=1/6 of BPSK=9.6 KHz

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Power-limited systems
Modulations that are power-limited achieve their goals with minimum expenditure of power at the expense of bandwidth. Examples are MFSK and other orthogonal signaling

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Bandwidth-limited systems
Modulations that achieve error rates at a minimum expenditure of bandwidth but possibly at the expense of too high a power are bandwidth-limited Examples are variations of MPSK and many QAM Check BER rate curves for BFSK and BPSK/QAM cases

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Bandwidth efficiency index

A while back we defined the following ratio as a bandwidth efficiency measure in bits/sec/HZ V=Rb/BT bits/sec/Hz Every digital modulation has its own V

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V for MPSK
 

At a bit rate of Rb, BPSK bandwidth is 2Rb When we go to MPSK, bandwidth goes down by a factor of log2M BT=2Rb/ log2M Then V=Rb/BT= log2M/2 bits/sec/Hz

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Some numbers
Lets evaluate V vs. M for MPSK M 2 4 8 16 32 64 V .5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3  Notice that bits/sec/Hz goes up by a factor of 6 from M=2 and M=64  The price we pay is that if power level is fixed (constellation radius fixed) BER will go up. We need more power to keep BER the same


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Defining MFSK:
In MFSK we transmit one of M frequencies for every symbol duration T These frequencies must be orthogonal. One way to do that is to space them 1/2T apart. They could also be spaced 1/T apart. Following The textbook we choose the former (this corresponds to using the first zero crossing of correlation curve)

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MFSK bandwidth
Symbol duration in MFSK is M times longer than binary T=Tblog2M symbol length Each pair of tones are separated by 1/2T. If there are M of them, BT=M/2T=M/2Tblog2M -->BT=MRb/2log2M

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Contrast with MPSK

Variation of bandwidth with M differs drastically compared to MPSK MPSK MFSK BT=2Rb/log2M BT=MRb/2log2M As M goes up, MFSK eats up more bandwidth but MPSK save bandwidth

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MFSK bandwidth efficiency

Lets compute Vs for MFSK V=Rb/M=2log2M/M bits/sec/HzMFSK M 2 4 8 16 32 64 V 1 1 .75 .5 .3 .18  Notice bandwidth efficiency drop. We are sending fewer and fewer bits per 1 Hz of bandwidth


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COMPARISON OF DIGITAL MODULATIONS*

*B. Sklar, Defining, Designing and Evaluating Digital Communication Systems, IEEE Communication Magazine, vol. 31, no.11, November 1993, pp. 92-101

Notations
Bandwidth efficiency measure

M ! 2 # of symbols m = log2 M bits/symbol m log2 M bits/ sec R= ! Ts Ts

m

Ts ! symbol duration Rs ! symbol rate 1 Ts 1 Tb ! ! ! bit length R m mRs

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R log 2 M 1 ! ! W WTs WTb

70

Bandwidth-limited Systems
There are situations where bandwidth is at a premium, therefore, we need modulations with large R/W. Hence we need standards with large timebandwidth product The GSM standard uses Gaussian minimum shift keying(GMSK) with WTb=0.3

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Case of MPSK
In MPSK, symbols are m times as wide as binary. Nyquist bandwidth is W=Rs/2=1/2Ts. However, the bandpass bandwidth is twice that, W=1/Ts Then

R log 2 M ! ! log 2 M its/sec/Hz WTs W

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Cost of Bandwidth Efficiency

As M increases, modulation becomes more bandwidth efficient. Lets fix BER. To maintain this BER while increasing M requires an increase in Eb/No.

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Power-Limited Systems
There are cases that bandwidth is available but power is limited In these cases as M goes up, the bandwidth increases but required power levels to meet a specified BER remains stable

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Case of MFSK
MFSK is an orthogonal modulation scheme. Nyquist bandwidth is M-times the binary case because of using M orthogonal frequencies, W=M/Ts=MRs Then

 

R log 2 M log 2 M ! ! bits/sec/Hz W WTs M

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Select an Appropriate Modulation



  

We have a channel of 4KHz with an available S/No=53 dB-Hz Required data rate R=9600 bits/sec. Required BER=10-5. Choose a modulation scheme to meet these requirements

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Minimum Number of Phases

To conserve power, we should pick the minimum number of phases that still meets the 4KHz bandwidth A 9600 bits/sec if encoded as 8-PSK results in 3200 symbols/sec needing 3200Hz So, M=8

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What is the required Eb/No?

S Eb R Eb ! ! R No No No S Eb (dB) ! (dB  Hz)  R(dB  bits / sec No No ! 13.2dB

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Is BER met? Yes

The symbol error probability in 8-PSK is
 2Es T  PE  M ! 2Q si    No M    Solve for Es/No
E Es Solve for PE ! log 2 M b ! v 20.89 ! 62.67 N0 No PE 2.2 v10 5 BER ! ! ! 7.3 v 10 6 log 2 M 3
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Power-limited uncoded system

   

Same bit rate and BER Available bandwidth W=45 KHz Available S/No=48-dBHz Choose a modulation scheme that yields the required performance

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Binary vs. M-ary Model

R bits/s

M-ary Modulator

R Rs ! symbols / s log 2 M

M-ary demodulator

S Eb Es ! R! Rs N o No No
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Choice of Modulation
With R=9600 bits/sec and W=45 KHz, the channel is not bandwidth limited Lets find the available Eb/No
Eb S (dB) ! dB  Hz  R(dB  bit / s) ! No No Eb (dB) ! 48dB  Hz No ! (10 log 9600)dB  bits / s ! 8.2dB
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Choose MFSK
We have a lot of bandwidth but little power ->orthogonal modulation(MFSK) The larger the M, the more power efficiency but more bandwidth is needed Pick the largest M without going beyond the 45 KHz bandwidth.

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MFSK Parameters
From Table 1, M=16 for an MFSK modulation requires a bandwidth of 38.4 KHz for 9600 bits/sec data rate We also wanted to have a BER<10^-5. Question is if this is met for a 16FSK modulation.

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16-FSK
Again from Table 1, to achieve BER of 10^5 we need Eb/No of 8.1dB. We solved for the available Eb/No and that came to 8.2dB

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Symbol error for MFSK

For noncoherent orthogonal MFSK, symbol error probability is
 Es  M 1  PE  M e exp 2  2 No  Es ! Eb log 2 M

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BER for MFSK

We found out that Eb/No=8.2dB or 6.61 Relating Es/No and Eb/No

 

Eb Es ! log 2 M No No BER and symbol error are related by

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PB

2 m 1 P m 2 1

Example
Lets look at the 16FSK case. With 16 levels, we are talking about m=4 bits per symbol. Therefore,
23 8 PB ! 4 PE ! PE 2 1 15 With Es/No=26.44, symbol error prob. PE=1.4x10^-5-->PB=7.3x10^-6

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Summary
Given:
R=9600 bits/s BER=10^-5 Channel bandwith=45 KHz Eb/No=8.2dB

Solution
16-FSK required bw=38.4khz required Eb/No=8.1dB

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