4.

1 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM

1. When two objects (contain heat energy) contact to each other, heat can flow between the both objects because they are in thermal contact 2. Heat is transferred from A to B and B to A, but the rate of heat transfer from A to B is greater than the rate of heat transfer from B to A. Thus, there is a net heat transfer from A to B.

3. The temperature of A ,which has a net heat loss, will decrease while the temperature of B, which has a net heat gain , will increase . The heat transfer will continue until a state of thermal equilibrium is achieved. 4. The temperature of B increase because the heat transferred to it increases the kinetic energy of its molecules.

5. When the two objects A and B in thermal contact and reach a state of thermal equilibrium, (a) the rates of heats transfer from A to B and from B to A are equal, i.e. the net rate of heat transfer between the two objects is zero. (b) the temperature of A is equal to the temperature of B.

CALIBRATION OF THERMOMETERS
1. Thermometers must be calibrated before they can be used to measure temperatures. 2. The calibration of an instrument refers to the process of marking-up a scale on the instrument to be used as measurement. 3. To produce a scale for a thermometer, two fixed points of temperature must first be selected. The fixed points chosen must be the temperatures which can be easily and accurately reproduced in any part of the world. 4. On the Celsius scale, the two fixed points are the ice point (0 C) and the steam point (100 C).

CALIBRATION OF A MERCURY-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER ON THE CLESIUS SCALE

1. To calibrate a mercury-in-glass thermometer , compliance with the procedure is required. 2. Ice point:
a) The mercury-in-glass thermometer (without scale) is placed in the filter funnel and covered with pure ice cubes as shown in Figure 4.5(a). b) The level of the mercury column drops until thermal equilibrium between the thermometer and ice is reached. c) The level of the mercury is marked and the length of the mercury column, 0 is measured.

3.

Steam point:

a) The thermometer is placed in the distillation flask as shown in Figure 4.5(b). b) The level of mercury is marked and the length of the mercury column ,100 is measured when thermal equilibrium between the thermometer and steam is reached

100 0

x 100 C

LIQUID IN GAS THERMOMETER

1. The liquid-in-gas thermometer works on the principle that liquid expands as the temperature rises. 2. The liquid used in a thermometer must have the following characteristic:
a) Easily visible b) Expands (or contracts) rapidly over a wide range of temperature c) Does not stick to the inside of the capillary tube

3. The most common used liquids in the construction of a liquid in gas thermometer are mercury and coloured alchohol 4. The advantages of mercury:
Opaque liquid Has a convenient range of temperature Does not stick to the glass wall Expand and contract rapidly and uniformly to the changes of temperature

5. The disadvantage of mercury:

Cannot measure very low temperature as the freezing point of mercury is -39 C

6. The anvantage of alchohol:

Suitable to be used in cold condition as it has low freezing point which is -115 C

7. The disadvantages of alchohol:

Clings to the wall of the thermometer tube Vaporises and stays on the upper part of the bore It is transparent and has to be coloured Low boiling point which is 78 C

a) Capillary tube with finer bore Some thermometers are more sensitive than other to changes in temperature . A thermometer with a fine bore tube is more sensitive. b) A smaller glass bulb A smaller glass bulb contains a smaller quatity of mercury,which will absorb heat to reach a particular temperature in a shorter time.As a result, the thermometer responds quicker to a change in temperature. c) Glass bulb with a thinner wall A thinner wall enables a quicker heat transfer from the surroundings to the mercury.The sensitivity of the thermometer is thus increased