Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
OR y Thermodynamics is the study of the movement of heat from one body to another and the relations between heat and other forms of energy. OR y Thermodynamics is the study of the connection between heat and work and the conversion of one into the other.
warmer object to a cooler object. y Caloriethe amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree Celsius in temperature. y Temperaturea relative term reflecting how vigorously the atoms of a substance are moving and colliding.
Units of Heat
y Calorie y A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water 1oC. 1 kcal = 1000 cal The calorie is outdated and commonly replaced by the SI-unit Joule. y Joule The unit of heat in the SI-system the Joule is The mechanical energy which must be expended to raise the temperature of a unit weight (2 kg) of water from 0oC to 1oC, or from 32oF to 33oF. 1 J (Joule) = 9.478 10-4 Btu
which measure the ability of an object or system to do work on another object or system. y In other words, there are different ways that an object or a system can possess energy.
Consider a book sitting on a table. The book is said to have "potential energy" because if it is nudged off, gravity will accelerate the book, giving the book kinetic energy. Therefore, it has potential.
y Chemical Energy: Consider the ability of your body to do work. The glucose (blood sugar) in your body is said to have "chemical energy" because the glucose releases energy when chemically reacted (combusted) with oxygen.
y Electrochemical Energy: Consider the energy stored in a battery. Like the example above involving blood sugar, the battery also stores energy in a chemical way. But electricity is also involved, so we say that the battery stores energy "electro-chemically". Another electron chemical device is a "fuel-cell".
REVIEW
y y y y y y y
Thermal or Heat Energy: Kinetic energy due to disordered motions of microscopic as molecules or atoms. Chemical Energy: Energy held in the covalent bonds between atoms in a molecule. Electrical Energy: Energy made available by the flow of electric charge through Electrochemical Energy: A combination of electrical and chemical energy where energy is stored in a chemical way. Sound Energy: Energy transmitted by pressure waves through air or other material. Electromagnetic Energy: The energy that travels in waves, such as ultra-violet radiation. It can be thought of as combination of electric and magnetic energy. Nuclear Energy: Energy that is created by splitting atoms of radioactive material such as uranium.
How is energy transported from place to place and transferred between objects?
energy is transported is when an object that possesses energy simply moves from one place to another. y For example, a baseball flying through the air is a simple form of energy transport.
object to another when objects collide. This is also pretty trivial, except that we also know that the total energy, including any heat or other forms of energy generated during the collision, is conserved in this process, regardless of the relative sizes, shapes, and materials of the objects.
HEAT
y There are three important ways that heat
energy can be transported or transferred, called conduction, convection, and radiation. y The first two refer to transfer of the thermal energy, whereas the last is really a conversion of energy to a different form, (photons of light) and the subsequent travel (transport) of those photons.
NATURE OF HEAT
Heat is a transfer of thermal energy from an object at a higher temperature to an object at a lower temperature.
Heat is transferred by conduction, convection, and radiation. A conductor transfers heat well whereas an insulator does not. The amount of heat necessary to raise a given mass of a substance by a specific unit of temperature is called the specific heat.
KEY TERMS
Conduction
The transfer of heat between particles within a substance. Convection The transfer of heat by the movement of currents within a fluid. Convection current The transfer of heat by the movement of currents within a fluid. Radiation The transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves.
KEY TERMS
Conductor
The material that easily transfers heat between its particles. Insulator A material that does not easily transfer heat between its particles. Specific heat The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of a substance by one gram Kelvin.
Conduction
The "diffusion" of thermal energy (heat) through a substance, which occurs because hotter molecules (those that are vibrating, rotating, or traveling faster), interact with colder molecules, and in the process transfer some of their energy. Metals are excellent conductors of heat energy, whereas things like wood or plastics are not good conductors of heat. Those that are not so good conductors are called insulators.
Convection
y The transfer of heat energy by the movement of a
substance, such as a heated gas or liquid from one place to another. y For example, hot air rising to the ceiling is an example of convection (in this case called a convection current).
Radiation
y In the context of heat transfer, however, the
term "radiation" refers just to light (electromagnetic waves), and in particular, to the surprising fact that all objects, even those that are in equilibrium (at equal temperature) with their surroundings, continuously emit, or radiate electromagnetic waves (that is, light waves) into their surroundings. y The source of this radiation is the thermal energy of the materials, that is, the movement of the object's molecules.
y Conductionscorching your
hand when you grab the handle of a hot pot y Convectionboiling water y Radiationstanding in front of your fireplace
but it cannot be created or destroyed. y The total amount of energy and matter in the Universe remains constant, merely changing from one form to another. y The First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation) states that energy is always conserved, it cannot be created or destroyed.
if no energy enters or leaves the system, the potential energy of the state will always be less than that of the initial state.
approaches absolute zero. This is the temperature at which molecules cease movement, cease producing kinetic energy. In other words, there is no energy.