Animal Tissues

Muscle tissue Connective tissue

Muscle Tissue
   
i. ii. iii.

The major function of muscle is to produce motion Muscle tissue consists of long, excitable cells capable of contraction Muscle is the most abundant tissue in most animals There are three types of vertebrate muscles:
Smooth muscle Involuntary muscle Cardiac muscle Skeletal muscle voluntary muscle

Skeletal Muscle


 

A skeletal muscle is made up of numerous, very long muscle cells, called muscle fibers, which lie parallel to each other within the muscle Each muscle fiber is multinucleated with the nuclei at the periphery. Each multinucleated muscle fiber is located just beneath the cell surface membrane called the sarcolemma. The cytoplasm in the muscle fiber is called sarcoplasm and contain many mitochondria.

Each muscle fiber contracts by means of substructures called myofibrils that contain highly ordered arrays of actin and myosin myofilaments, that when alligned, give the muscle fiber its striated look

Cardiac Muscle
 

Cardiac muscle is the main tissue of the heart Cardiac muscle cells have a single nucleus, many mitochondria and are striated. The muscle cells are connected to one another by intercalated discs (gap junction) The fibers are elongated, cylindrical that branch and rejoin, forming complex networks The cardiac muscles bring about the continuous, rhythmic contractions of the heart and pump blood around the body

Nucleus

25 m Intercalated discs

Z-line Mitochondria

1 m

Cardiac muscle

abutting ends of two cardiac muscle cells (intercalated disc)

communication junction

Myogenic : originating in or produced by muscle cell The contractions of cardiac muscle fibers are described as myogenic, since they produced spontaneously, without requiring stimulation from nerve cells

Smooth Muscle


Smooth muscle (visceral muscle) is found in the in the walls of the digestive tract, uterus, blood vessels and many other internal organs Smooth muscle is organized into sheets of elongated, spindle-shaped, pointed-end cells, spindlepointedcells, each containing a single, central nucleus

The muscle fibres do not contain visible cross striations.

SMOOTH MUSCLE

cells teased apart for clarity

Exercise to wake the mind



Comparison of the three types of muscles Past year questions (2005/2006) 2005/2006) Compare and contrast the cardiac muscle tissue and skeletal muscle tissue. tissue. (8 marks)

Connective Tissues


Connective tissue functions mainly to bind and support other tissues.

Connective tissues have a sparse population of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix.  The matrix generally consists of a web of fibers embedding in a uniform foundation that may be liquid, jellylike, or solid.  In most cases, the connective tissue cells secrete the matrix.


The major types of connective tissues in vertebrates are :

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. 

loose connective tissue adipose tissue fibrous connective tissue cartilage SPECIAL CONNECTIVE bone TISSUES Will be discussed in detail blood. Each has a structure correlated with its specialized function.

Cartilage


Cartilage has an abundance of collagenous fibers embedded in a rubbery matrix made of a substance called chondroitin sulfate, a proteincarbohydrate complex.
Chondrocytes, the cells of the cartilage,live within spaces called lacunae, secrete collagen and chondroitin sulfate.  These cells remain alive even there is no blood within the cartilage matrix  They receive O2 and nutrients by diffusion from surrounding blood vessels


The composite of collagenous fibers and chondroitin sulfate makes cartilage a strong yet somewhat flexible support material.  The skeleton of a shark is made of cartilage and the embryonic skeletons of many vertebrates are cartilaginous.  We retain cartilage as flexible supports in certain locations, such as the nose, ears, and vertebral disks.


Anatomy of a Long Bone



Longitudinal section of a long bone shows a hollow cavity, medullary cavity, bounded at the sides by compact bone and at the end by spongy bone. bone.
Compact bone contains many osteons where osteocytes lie in lacunae. lacunae.  Spongy bone has numerous bars and plates separated by irregular spaces. spaces.



Spaces filled with red bone marrow. marrow.

Fig. 50.4

Bone
 

Bone is a mineralized connective tissue Osteoblasts, bone-forming cells, deposit bonea matrix of collagen and calcium phosphate, which hardens into the mineral hydroxypatite The combination of flexible collagen and hydroxypatite makes the bone harder than cartilage without being brittle

The microscopic structure of hard mammalian bone consists of repeating units called osteons (Harvesian systems)


Each osteon has concentric layers of mineralized matrix deposited around a central canal containing blood vessels and nerves that service the bone.

Once osteoblast become trapped in their own secretions, they are called osteocytes (bone cells) Osteocytes are located in spaces called lacunae surrounded by a hard matrix and are connected to each other by cell extensions called canaliculi In long bones, only the outer area is hard and compact; the inner area is filled with spongy bone tissue called marrow

Lacuna

Cytoplasmic extensions

Matrix Osteocyte

Spongy bone

Compact Haversian bone canal Lacuna Cytoplasmic extensions

Osteon Matrix Cytoplasmic extensions Osteocyte

Volkmann canals connect the Harvesian canals of adjacent osteons to each other

Volkmann Canal

Blood


Blood is classified as a connective tissue because it contains abundant extracellular material, the fluid plasma
The plasma, consists of water, salts, and a variety of dissolved proteins.  Plasma from which the fibrinogen and other clotting factors have been removed is called the serum  Suspended in the plasma are erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells) and cell fragments called platelets.


Erythrocytes (Red blood cells, RBCs)

  

Erythrocytes, also called the RBCs, are highly specialized for transporting oxygen Each mammalian RBC is a flexible, biconcave disc, 7 to 8 m in diameter and 1 2 m thick Its biconcave shape provides a high ratio of surface area to volume, allowing efficient diffusion of O2 and CO2 into and out of the cell In an adult human, about 30 trillion RBCs circulate in the blood, approximately 5 million per l.

 

During the RBCs maturation in mammals, they lose their nucleus, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum Thus, a mammalian RBCs are relatively inactive metabolically Erythrocytes are produced within the red bone marrow of certain bones : vertebrae, ribs, breastbone, skull bones and long bones

  

As an RBC develops, it produces great quantities of hemoglobin, the oxygenoxygentransporting pigment that gives vertebrate blood its red colour Each RBC contains about 300 million molecules of hemoglobin The life span of a human RBC is about 120 days In a human body, more than 2.4 million are destroyed every second, so an equal number must be produced in the bone marrow to replace them. them.

Leukocytes


 

The leukocytes or WBCs are specialized to defend the body against harmful bacteria and other microorganisms Less than 1% of the human blood are WBCs WBCs have nuclei and mitochondria but lack the pigment hemoglobin Leukocytes are not confined to the blood as erythrocytes are, but can migrate out of capillaries into the interstitial (tissue) fluid

Types of Leukocytes


Human blood contains five types of leukocytes, classified as either :

Granular  Agranular


Both types are manufactured in the red bone marrow

Granular Leukocytes



i. ii.

Are characterized by large, lobed nuclei and distinctive granules in their cytoplasm There three types :
Neutrophils Eusinophils Basophils

iii.

Agranular Leukocytes



i.

They lack large distinctive granules and their nuclei are rounded or kidney-shaped There are two types :
Lymphocytes
 

T-lymphocytes B-lymphocytes

ii.

Monocytes

Functions of the blood



Blood perform functions:

i. ii. iii.

three

important

Transport system Homeostasis Protection

Organs and Organ Systems



Organs are body structures composed of several different tissues that form a structural and functional unit In all but the simplest animals (sponges and cnidarians), different tissues are organized into organs

Eg : the heart, is mainly cardiac muscle, but it is lined with endothelium and contains blood vessels made of endothelium, smooth muscle and connective tissue The heart also has nerves that transmit information and help regulate the rate and strength of its contraction

Fig. 49.4

 

In some organs the tissues are arranged in layers. For example, the vertebrate stomach has four major tissues layers.  A thick epithelium lines the lumen and secretes mucus and digestive juices into it.  Outside this layer is a zone of connective tissue, surrounded by a thick layer of smooth muscle.  Another layer of connective tissue encapsulates the entire stomach.

Organ systems carry out the major body functions of most animals.  Each organ system consists of several organs and has specific functions.

Cell Recognition
 

How do cells recognize each other? It is very important that the human body should be able to recognize self and nonnonself. self. Self : the cells within your own body and have their own particular sets of surface markers/chemicals NonNon-self : foreign cells. Cells with different cells. chemicals on their surfaces. Eg: invading surfaces. Eg: microorganisms