RADAR

Historical Overview
RADAR: Radio Detection and Ranging.
Years Developments

1865

The English physicist James Clerk Maxwell developed his electro-magnetic light theory
The German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz discovers the electromagnetic waves and prove the theory of Maxwell with that. The italian technician GUGLIELMO MARCONI used As a radiating and receiving aerial element he used a long pole, along which was carried a wire
The German engineer CHRISTIAN HULSMEYER invents the TELEMOBILOSKOP to the traffic supervision on the water. Measures the running time of the electro-magnatics wave to a metal object and back, calculation of the distance is thus possible and was the first practical radar test

1886

1897

1904

1921

US-american physicist Albert Wallace Hull invented the Magnetron as an efficient transmitting tube

1922

Albert H. Taylor and Leo C. Young of the Naval Research Laboratory (USA) locate a wooden ship for the first time. Lawrence A. Hyland (also of the Naval Research Laboratory), locates an aircraft for the first time. A ship is equipped with radar. As antennae are used parabolic dishes with horn radiators. George F. Metcalf and William C. Hahn developed KLYSTRON ,an important component in radar unit as an amplifiers or oscillator tube John Randall and Henry Boot built a small but powerful radar using a Cavity-Magnetron. The B- 17 airplanes were fitted with this radar. Different radar equipments are developed in the USA, Russia, Germany, France and Japan

1930

1931

1936

1939

19 0

Basic Principle of Operation

Radar measurement of range, or distance, is made possible because of the properties of radiated electromagnetic energy.

Reflection of electromagnetic waves The electromagnetic waves are reflected if they meet an electrically leading surface. If these reflected waves are received again at the place of their origin, then that means an obstacle is in the propagation direction.

Electromagnetic energy travels through air at a constant speed, at approximately the speed of light,

This constant speed allows the determination of the distance between the reflecting objects (airplanes, ships or cars) and the radar site by measuring the running time of the transmitted pulses.

This energy normally travels through space in a straight line, and will vary only slightly because of atmospheric and weather conditions. By using of special radar antennas this energy can be focused into a desired direction. Thus the direction (in azimuth and elevation of the reflecting objects can be measured.

Radar Basic Principles

Transmitter
produces the short duration high-power RF pulses of energy that are radiated into space by the antenna. operating characteristics

Generate the re uired ean RF power and the re uired peak power

Have a suitable RF bandwidth.

High RF stability to eet signal processing re uire ents

Easily odulated to eet wavefor design re uire ents

Type of transmitters
Type of transmitters

keyed-oscillator Power Oscillator Transmitter Magnetron produces the RF pulse oscillator tube is keyed by a high-power dc pulse Radar units fitted with a POT are either noncoherent or pseudo-coherent

Power-Amplifier-Transmitters transmitting pulse is caused with a small performance in a waveform generator

mplitron, lystron or olid- tatemplifier

Duplexer

simplified functional block diagram of a radar using a diplexer single antenna is used for both transmitting and receiving An electronic switch is used. Switching systems of this type are called duplexers. Duplexers are constructed in many forms, such as 1.Ferrite Circulators (hybrid-ring duplexer) or 2.resonant cavity coaxial or waveguide systems, with TR- and ATR- tubes, or with pin diodes.

Antenna
Acts as a transformer to provide a good match between the feeding line as a local source of power and free space If the antenna is not matched to free space, power will be reflected back toward the transmitter, resulting in a loss in radiated power functions

transfers the transmitter energy to signals in space with the required distribution and efficiency

provide the required frequency of target position updates

must measure the pointing direction with a high degree of accuracy

Arrangements of Antenna Parabolic Antenna Phased Array Antenna Parabolic Antenna : all reflected rays will be parallel to the axis of the paraboloid which gives us ideally one single reflected ray parallel to the main axis with no sidelobes

produces a pencil beam

Pencil Beam antennae are used as a tracking radar radiation pattern :

radiation pattern=Major lobes directed along axis of propagation and several minor lobes

Gain =160^2/Qaz.Qel Qaz=Beam width in azimuth angle Qel= Beamwidth in elevation angle

Horizontal Cross Section

Phased Array Antenna --composed of lots of radiating elements each with a phase shifter. --Beams are formed by shifting the phase of the signal emitted from each radiating element --main beam always points in the direction of the increasing phase shift

Radar receivers
Requirements

amplify the received signals without adding noise or introducing any form of distortion

optimise the probability of detection of the signal by its bandwidth characteristics

provide a large dynamic range to accommodate large clutter signals

reject interfering signals so that the required information can be optimally detected

Minimum Detectable Signal (MDS) **The minimum receivable power (Pemin) for a given receiver is important because the minimum receivable power is one of the factors which determine the maximum range performance of the radar **10 -13 Watts ( -100 dBm) for a typical radar receiver Bandwidth a radar using 1 s pulses may be expected to have a bandwidth of about 1 Mhz

Display The PPI-scope is mostly used radar display Own position is represented as the origin of the sweep, which is normally located in the centre of the scope, but may be offset from the centre on some sets uses a radial sweep sweep rotates on the display just as fast as the radar antenna

Distance-determination

R=C .t 2 where C =Speed of light (3.10 8 m/s) t=measured running time [s]
R = slant range antenna - aim [m] The distances are expressed in kilometres or nautical miles (1 NM = 1.852 km)

Direction-determination **Angular determination of the target is determined by the directivity of the antenna **Directivity, sometimes known as the directive gain, is the ability of the antenna to concentrate the transmitted energy in a particular direction