Locomotion – Skeletal and

Muscular Systems
 Movement is
based on
Muscles acting
on a rigid
skeleton

 All
animals
employ the use
of muscles
Types of Skeletons
 Hydrostatic

Fluid filled cavity encircled by

muscle fibers
Soft-bodied invertebrates
 Exoskeleton
Body encased in hard shell
chitin
most be shed for growth
limits body size as exoskeleton
has to grow increasingly
thicker and heavier
 Endoskeleton
 Types of Skeletons
 Endoskeletons- rigid internal skeleton
to which muscles are attached
 composed of cartilage or bone
 vertebrate skeleton
 axial skeleton - forms axis of body and supports
organs of the head, neck, and chest
 appendicular skeleton - includes bones of the

limbs, pectoral and pelvic girdles

Exoskeleton and
Endoskeleton
Skeleton
Functions Overview
 Homeostatic Connective Tissue
 Ca+ and P+ Extracellular matrix with
reservoir
collagen fibers (flexible)
 Biomechanical impregnated with
 Attachment for crystals of Calcium
muscles phosphate (rigidity)
 Protective Dynamic –
covering brain and
spinal cord
reconstruction
 Bone Tissue
Structure
 Consists of
Haversian System
 Run length of bone
 Nerves/blood
 Osteoblasts - matrix
 Osteocytes –
encased
 Osteoclast -
breakdown

 Concentric lamellae
 Around canal
 Lacunae -
 Canaliculi
 (articulations)
Joints – places where 2 bones are attached
TYPES
 Immovable joints – dense connective tissue -
little movement - sutures
 Slightly movable joints – held together by
cartilage
Some flexibility not much (intervertebral and
symphyses)
 Freely movable

Synovial Joints
Capsule with
fluid
Types of Joints
Types of Joints
Types of Joints
 Levers for movement
 Muscles attach to bone to allow
movement – contraction =
movement
 Origin – nonmoving
 Insertion – moving
 Attach via tendons
 Muscles oppose each other –
Antagonistic
 Muscles that cause the same action
synergists
 Isotonic contraction - muscle and
all fibers shorten in length thus
force of contraction remains
relatively constant
 Isometric contraction - tension is
absorbed by tendons and other
Flexor and Extensor
Muscles
Muscle
Structure
 Muscle
 Muscle fascicle
 Muscle fibers = cell
 Myofibrils
 Thick and thin
myofilaments

Myosin and Actin

 Muscle Structure (Cont’d)

 Striated due to dark

and light bands
 Pattern =
organization of
myofilaments
 Repeating structure
“Sarcomere”
Dark bands = “A”
myosin
Light bands = “I” actin
Z line = actin
attachment
H zone = myosin only
Sliding Filament Mechanism
Mechanism of muscle contraction
No shortening - sliding
The Players
 Preparing for Sliding
muscle relaxed – myosin heads cocked – unable to
Bind to actin due to sites blocked by protein - tropomyosin
In order to contract tropomyosin must be moved to expose
binding sites on actin
Requires a regulatory protein troponin – troponin binds to
tropomyosin changes the structure and exposes binding sites
Troponin regulated by Calcium stored in the muscle cells
If low calcium no binding sites exposed , if high calcium
- exposed
ATP is required

 Rigor mortis – body not make ATP

(DEAD) cross-bridges cannot be broken
 What causes sliding?

 Nervous system
involvement
 When stimulated,
electrical impulse
travels down
T-tubules
 Causes sarcoplasmic
reticulum to release
Ca++
Control of Muscle
Contraction
 Nerves stimulate contraction
 Somatic motor neurons stimulate
skeletal muscles.
 Axon extends from neuron cell body and
branches to make synapses with a
number of muscle fibers.
Control of Muscle
Contraction
 Somatic motor neuron stimulates
contraction:
 releasing acetylcholine neurotransmitter
(ACh).
 impulses spread along membrane and
carried into the muscle fibers through the T
tubules
 T tubules conduct impulse toward the
sarcoplasmic reticulum, which releases Ca++
 Excitation-contraction coupling
Control of Muscle
Contraction
 Motor units and recruitment
 set of muscle fibers innervated by all axonal
branches is defined as a motor unit
 division of muscle into motor units allows
muscle’s strength of contraction to be finely
graded
– most muscles contain motor units in a variety of sizes
 recruitment - nervous system’s use of increased
numbers and sizes of motor units to produce a
stronger contraction
Number and Size of Motor
Units
Types of Muscle Fibers
 Muscle fiber twitches
 muscle stimulated with a single electric
shock
 A second electrical shock delivered immediately
after the first will produce a second twitch that
may partially piggyback on the first
(summation).
– At a particular frequency of stimulation, there is no
visible relaxation between successive twitches
(tetanus).
Summation
Types of Muscle Fibers

 Skeletalmuscle fibers can be divided on

the basis of their contraction speed:
 Type I – slow-twitch fibers
 rich capillary supply, numerous mitochondria,
and high concentration of myoglobin pigment
(red fibers)
 Type II – fast-twitch fibers
 fewer capillaries and mitochondria and not as
much myoglobin (white fibers)
Types of Muscle Fibers

 Musclemetabolism during rest and

exercise
 Skeletal muscles at rest obtain energy from
aerobic respiration of fatty acids.
 Skeletal muscles respire anaerobically for the
first 45-90 seconds of moderate to heavy
exercise.
 Maximum rate of oxygen consumption in the

body is called maximal uptake or aerobic

capacity.
Types of Muscle Fibers

 Muscle fatigue and physical training

 Muscle fatigue refers to the use-dependent
decrease in the ability of a muscle to
generate force.
 usually correlated with the production of lactic
acid by the exercising muscles
– also related to depletion of muscle glycogen
Types of Muscle Fibers
 Endurance-trained athletes have a
high aerobic capacity, and thus
can perform more exercise before
lactic acid production and
glycogen depletion cause muscle
fatigue.
 Weight training (resistance training)
causes muscle fibers to become
thicker as a result of increased size
and number of myofibrils.
 cause skeletal muscles to grow by
Modes of Animal
Locomotion
 Inlarge animals, active locomotion
is almost always produced by
appendages that oscillate
(appendicular locomotion) or by
bodies that undulate, pulse, or
undergo peristaltic waves (axial
locomotion).
Modes of Animal
Locomotion
 Locomotion in water
 Buoyancy reduces the influence of gravity.
 The primary force retarding forward movement
is frictional drag.
– Swimming uses the body or its appendages to push
against the water.
Locomotion in Water
Modes of Animal
Locomotion
 Locomotion on land
 Mollusks slide along a path of mucus.
 Vertebrates and arthropods have a raised
body and move forward by pushing the
ground with a series of jointed appendages.
 Vertebrates have four limbs, while arthropods
have six or more.
– basic walking pattern of all tetrapod vertebrates LH –
LF – RH – RF
Locomotion on Land
 Both arthropods and vertebrates
achieve faster gaits by overlapping leg
movements.
 The highest running speeds of tetrapod
vertebrates are obtained with
asymmetrical gaits.
 galloping horse never supported by more
than two legs, occasionally by none
 reduces friction against ground
 Manyvertebrates use peristaltic
locomotion.
Modes of Animal
Locomotion
 Locomotion in air
 Flight has evolved four times:
 insects, pterosaurs, birds,and bats
 propulsion achieved by pushing down against

the air with wings

 Raising and lowering wings is achieved by
alternate contraction of extensor muscles
and flexor muscles.
Modes of Animal
Locomotion
 In
some insect orders, flight
muscles are not attached to the
wings, but rather to the stiff wall of
the thorax.
Summary
 Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
 Tissue Types
 Types of Skeletons
 The Structure of Bone
 Types of Joints
 Actions of Skeletal Muscles
 Sliding Filament Mechanism of
Contraction
 Control of Muscle Contraction
 Types of Muscle Fibers
Muscle Tissue Types

 Smooth Muscle

 Striated Muscle
Skeletal
Cardiac
Striated Muscle
 Skeletal

 Cardiac
Skeletal Muscle