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Definitions
Free Stream Flow or Relative Airflow (R.A.F.): The airflow in a region where pressure, temperature and relative velocity are unaffected by the passage of an aircraft through it. Total Reaction: The resultant of all aerodynamic forces acting on the wing or aerofoil section.
Drag: The component of the total reaction which is parallel to the to the flight path or relative airflow. Lift: The component of the total reaction which is perpendicular to the to the flight path or relative airflow. Wing Loading Weight per unit area of the wing W/S
Chord Line: A straight line joining the centres of curvature of the leading and trailing edges. Chord: The physical length of the Chord Line.
Wing Area (S): Area of the wing projected on a plane perpendicular to the normal axis. Mean Camber Line: A line joining all points equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces of the wing.
Camber: The max. distance between the chordchord-line and the mean camber line. Angle of Attack: The angle between the chord-line and chordthe R.A.F.
Angle of Incidence
Angle between Chord Line and longitudinal axis .Normally 3 -
Sweep Angle The angle between the line of 25% chord and a perpendicular to the wing root.
Taper Ratio Is the ratio of the tip chord to the root chord, or = Ct / Cr
Cr Ct
WashWash-out A reduction in the angle of incidence (design AoA) or camber of a wing section near the wing tip to prevent tip stalling.
Aerofoil Theory
Basic Properties of a Fluid The three properties of most importance to aerodynamics are: Pressure Density, and Viscosity.
Pressure Static and dynamic Measured in Force per Area (Newtons per square metre) the normal force per unit area exerted on a surface due to the time rate of change of momentum of the gas molecules impacting on that surface.
Static Pressure. The static pressure in a fluid acts equally in all directions and exerts a force which acts perpendicular to any surface it is in contact with.
Dynamic Pressure. Dynamic pressure is that pressure exerted upon an object by the moving air and is due to the kinetic energy of the air. Dynamic Pressure equation q = 1/2( V2)
The density of air is: the mass of air per cubic metre of volume. Density = m/v
Vicosity A measure of the resistance of air to fluid flow or the resistance of one layer of air to movement over the neighbouring layer measured in mass/length.time or kg/m.s
Viscosity
Caused by the internal friction between the fluids molecules. An ideal fluid is considered to be inviscid or it has no internal friction. Air is considered to be an ideal fluid below M 0.3
Types of Airflow: Steady streamline flow Unsteady flow 2 dimensional flow and 3 dimensional flow
Steady flow
Succeeding molecules follow the same steady path in a flow, each one following the one before it. The flow may be accurately represented by streamlines. At any point on the streamline, the velocity, static and dynamic pressures are constant w.r.t. time. Molecules do not swap from one streamline to another.
Unsteady Flow Succeeding molecules do not follow the same path. The flow cannot be represented by streamlines. At any point in the fluid, the velocities and pressures will vary w.r.t. time. The molecules mix freely.
2-dimensional airflow Theoretical tool that is relevant only to a wing of infinite span or a section which spans a wind tunnel from wall to wall. No induced flow at the wing tips.
3-dimensional airflow Occurs on wings of finite span where the pressure differential tries to equalise around the wing tip. Span-wise drift along with Spanpressure differential produces a wing tip vortex.
Vortex upsets the balance between the up-wash and updownwash of 2D flow. This causes: a reinforcing of the downwash, reduction of the effective , backwards tilting of the lift vector, and downwards tilt of the effective RAF.
Airfoil - Aerofoil
An airfoil is a cross section of a wing. An Airfoil is a structure, piece, or body designed to obtain a useful reaction upon itself in its motion through the air.
Flat Plate
Cambered Plate
Airfoil terminology
The Chord Line (1) is a straight (1 line connecting the leading and trailing edges of the airfoil. The Chord (2) is the length of the (2 chord line from leading edge to trailing edge and is the characteristic longitudinal dimension of an airfoil.
The Mean Camber Line (3) is a line drawn halfway between the upper and lower surfaces. The chord line connects the ends of the mean camber line. Maximum Camber (4) (displacement of the mean camber line from the chord line) and where it is located (expressed as fractions or percentages of the basic chord) help to define the shape of the mean camber line.
The Maximum Thickness (5) of an (5 airfoil and where it is located (expressed as a percentage of the chord) help define the airfoil shape, and hence its performance. The Leading Edge Radius (6) of the (6 airfoil is the radius of curvature given the leading edge shape.
Types of Airfoil
Symmetric Airfoil
Reflex camber
Flat Bottom A Flat Bottom Wing is when the lower surface of the wing is primarily flat between the leading and trailing edges.
FullyFully-Symmetrical A Fully-Symmetrical Wing airfoil is curved on Fullythe bottom to the same degree as it is on the top.
A Fully-Symmetrical Wing airfoil is curved Fullyon the bottom to the same degree as it is on the top.
A Flat Bottom Wing airfoil is when the lower surface of the wing is primarily flat between the leading and trailing edges.
A Semi- symmetrical Wing airfoil has a curved Semibottom section but to a lesser degree than a symmetrical section. It is a compromise between the flat bottom and the symmetrical wing.
An Under-camber airfoil has the lower surface Underof the wing curved inwardly almost parallel to the upper surface.
Velocity
Pressure
Pressure Distribution Around an Aerofoil Greatest positive pressures at stagnation points. Front stagnation point separates flow over and under wing.
L=Lift, CL = Lift Coefficient, = density, v = velocity, S = area (when projected onto a horizontal plane) The lift coefficient is a function of the shape and condition of the wing, the viscosity of the air and the angle of attack.
Lift Coefficient
The lift coefficient is a function of the shape and condition of the wing, the viscosity of the air and the angle of attack.
Airfoil Data
Lift Coefficient
Drag Coefficient
Classification of Airfoils - National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) 1929 - National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) - RAF - Goetingen
Factors Affecting CL
- angle of attack (E) (E - shape of wing section & plan-form plan- condition of wing surface - Reynolds number - speed of sound
AoA
CL
Effect of Tickness Ratio (t /c) Lower t /c ratio results in less drag and a lower CL Mainly a consideration for supersonic wings, in an attempt to reduce drag, however it does effect CLMAX at lower IAS High Lift aerofoils employ a high t/c ratio, a pronounced camber, and a wellwellrounded leading edge
General purpose aerofoils employ a lower t/c ratio, less camber, and a sharper leading edge. High Speed aerofoils employ a very low t/c ratio, no camber, and a sharp leading edge. Looking for minimum drag, but also get low maximum lift coefficients @o V2
This effects the transition to a turbulent boundary layer, hence the adverse pressure gradient, and stall characteristics. Point of max thickness well aft of the LE can give an abrupt stall and therefore a small sharp peak to the graph
Effect of Sweep
straight wing CL
swept wing
Effect of Wash-out on Lift WashWashWash-out is a reduction in camber or incidence at the tip of a wing to reduce tip stalling and simulate the elliptical ideal. Therefore one could expect similar effects to taper ratio.
Centre of Pressure: The point, usually on the chordchordline, through which the total reaction is considered to act. Aerodynamic Center: - The point, where pitching moment of an airfoil remain constant.
Centre of Pressure
Aerodynamic Center
For symmetric airfoils, the aerodynamic moment about the ac is zero for all angles of attack. attack. With camber, the moment is nonnonzero and constant for thin airfoils. airfoils. For a positive cambered airfoil, the moment is negative and results in a counter-clockwise counterrotation of the airfoil. airfoil.
With camber, an angle of attack can be determined for which the airfoil produces no lift, but the moment is still present. present.
Aerodynamic Center
For rectangular wings, the wing ac is the same as the airfoil ac. But for ac. wings with some other planform (triangular, trapezoidal, etc.) etc.)
Mean Aerodynamic Chord Mean Aerodynamic Center (MAC) (MAC) which is the average for the whole wing. wing. The computation of the mac depends on the shape of the planform. planform. Mean Aerodynamic Chord is the chord past through the MAC.
Swept Wing
Swept Wing
Trapezoidal Wing
Elliptical Wing
Stall
Wing Stall
Wing Stall
High AoA : Stalls begin from trailing edge to leading egde.
Stall Progression
Low AoA
crit
Wing Span ( b ) The Wingspan is the length of the wing as measured from wing tip to wing tip. Wing Area( S ) The Wing Area is the total surface area of the wing, usually calculated by the wing span times the wing chord.
Taper Ratio Is the ratio of the tip chord to the root chord, or = Ct / Cr
Cr Ct
Great Sweepback Wing Simple Delta Wing and Complex Delta Wing
Zero Lift Drag Consists of components of: Form drag (boundary layer normal pressure drag), Surface friction drag, and Interference drag
Lift Dependent Drag In producing lift the whole aircraft will produce additional drag composed of: Induced drag (vortex drag), and Increments of: form drag, surface friction drag, and interference drag.
Induced Drag The pressure difference between the upper and lower surface of a finite regular wing at a positive angle of attack will cause the following spanwise pressure distribution. CDi = CL2 / AR e
The effect of the induced downwash (due to the vortices) is to tilt downwards the effective relative airflow, thereby reducing the relative angle of attack. To regain the consequent loss of lift, the aerofoil must be raised until the original value of lift is restored.
The component of total reaction parallel to flight is now longer. The additional value of drag is known as induced or vortex drag.
Infinite Wing
Finite Wing
The main factors affecting vortex formation and therefore induced drag are: Planform Aspect Ratio Lift and Weight Speed
Increments of ZLD resulting from Lift Production Surface friction & Form Drag As lift increases from zero forward movement of the peak of the low pressure envelope will cause earlier transition of the boundary layer to turbulent flow.
Increments of ZLD resulting from Lift Production Surface friction & Form Drag increasing adverse pressure gradient will cause earlier separation. earlier transition increases the surface friction drag and earlier separation increases the form drag.
Increments of ZLD resulting from Lift Production Interference Drag When the aircraft is producing lift, the boundary layers are thicker and more turbulent and therefore create greater energy losses when they mix.
Endplate
Winglet
Drag Equation
Total Drag = Parasite Drag + Induced Drag
For straight and level flight
Lift = Weight
DT
DT =
D p Di
1 1 2 2 VV S C D VV S C D 2 2 o i
1 2 VV S C L 2
CL !
W 1 2 VV S 2
CD =
i
CL TARe
DT !
C2 1 1 2 L VS C D V VS TA 2 2 o
2
.V2 e
DT !
1 W 1 2 VS C D V . 2 1 2 o V STA e V 2
DT !
AV
B V
2
1 V S CD 2 o
W
2
1 V S TA e 2
Drag Polar
CD !
CD
o
CL TA Re
2
CD !
C D kC L
o
CDt = Total Drag coefficient CDo = min. Drag coefficient at Zero Lift CL = Lift coefficient AR = Wing aspect ratio e = Wing span efficiency factor
Stall Pattern
Stall Pattern
Why ? Stall warning : - Wing and fuselage shake - Control stick shake - Lift still present Aileron still effective
Wing Characteristics
Good Stall Characteristics Low Design Cost Medium Span Efficiency High Stress at Root Chord
Wing Characteristics
Medium Stall Characteristics Medium Design Cost Medium Span Efficiency Medium Stress at Root Chord
Wing Characteristics
Bad Stall Characteristics Medium Design Cost Medium Span Efficiency Medium Stress at Root Chord
Wing Characteristics
Bad Stall Characteristics High Design Cost Low Span Efficiency Low Stress at Root Chord Problem with Stability
Wing Characteristics
Medium Stall Characteristics High Design Cost Good Span Efficiency Medium Stress at Root Chord
Aerodynamic Twist
Used of Cambered Airfoil at Wing root and Symmetrical Airfoil at Wing tip
CL
Stall Strip
Wing Fence
Lift Transducer
Flaps
Purpose: vary the camber of the wing section. Increase wing area Method: leading or trailing edge hinged sections.
Types of Flaps
Plain Flaps
simple hinged design. increased in CLmax. Increased Drag. zero lift angle reduced. reduced.
Split Flaps
flat plate deflected from lower wing greater increase in CLmax than plain flap. Large increase in drag. Design good for steep approaches due to high drag
Slotted Flap
Similar to plain flap but with air slot. upper boundary layer is energised through slot. Separation is delayed Much greater increase in CLmax than previous types. Lower drag than previous types.
Slotted Flap
Slats/Slots
A small highly cambered auxiliary aerofoil section fixed to the LE of the wing. Types: Fixed, Automatic, Manual
Operation of Slats
The slat generates a high lift coefficient because of its marked camber. The slot delays separation until higher AoA and lift coefficient than a plain wing.
Uses of Slats
Increase CL max. Reduced landing speeds low speed handling Ideal on Delta wing aircraft Controls flow pattern and lift distribution
Effect of Slats on Pressure Distribution. Slats maintain higher energy boundary layer. Separation delayed by thin leading edge of slat separation delayed by energized slot boundary layer.
Fixed Slot
Blowing BLC
Sucking BLC
Vortex Generator
Vortex Generator
Spoilers