INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS

By

R. SUDHARSANAN, (Ph.D), M.E., A.M.I.E.

Asst. Professor II, Department of Civil Engineering, Velammal Engineering College. sudharsanan_r@yahoo.com sudharsananprs@gmail.com

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM

 

Geographic implies to the surface of the earth Information implies knowledge of or collection of data

system implies framework

GIS DEFINITION
A set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming, and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes. : Burrough (1986). A system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analyzing and displaying data which are spatially referenced to the Earth. : (Depart. of Environment, 1987). Computer tool for managing geographic feature location data and data related to those features. : Allan B. Cox

COMPONENTS OF GIS Overview Components Data Maps/Views/Layouts Spatial Analysis Physical Components software hardware data users need/application

What does a GIS do?

    

Input data Manage data Manipulate data Perform analyses Produce output - maps, charts

DATA Spatial Data Attribute Data Represents features that have a known location on earth. The information linked to the geographic features (spatial data) that describe those features. Are the result of combining spatial and attribute data. Essentially adding the attribute database to the spatial location. A layer type refers to the way spatial and attribute information are connected. There are two major layer types, vector and raster. How geographic features are related to one another and where they are in relation to one another. Data about data

Data Layers

Layer Types

Topology

Metadata

MAPS
 The traditional method for storing, analyzing and presenting spatial data is the map.  The map is of fundamental importance in GIS as a source of data, a structure for storing data and a device for analysis and display.  Maps are classified into topographical maps and thematic maps.  Thematic maps show data relating to a particular theme or topic such as soil, land use, transportation or population.  Topographic maps contain a diverse set of data on different themes such as Survey of India Toposheets or tourist maps.

MAP SCALE
Virtually all sources of spatial data, including maps, are smaller than the reality they represent. Scale can be defined as the ratio of distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground (Martin, 1996). Scale can be expressed in one of three ways: as a ratio scale, a verbal scale or a graphical scale.
Ratio Verbal Graphical 1:5,000 1 cm represents 50 m 0 100m 200 m 1:1,00,000 1 cm represents 10 km 0 10 20 30 km

SPATIAL REFERENCING AND GEO-CODING Geographic information contains either an explicit geographic reference, such as a latitude and longitude or national grid co-ordinate, or an implicit reference such as an address, postal code, census tract name, forest stand identifier, or road name. The spatial referencing can be grouped into three categories:
  

Geographic co-ordinate system; Rectangular co-ordinate system; and Non co-ordinate system.

(i) Geographic Co-ordinate System: The only true geographic co-ordinates are latitude and longitude. Using lines of latitude and longitude any point on the Earths surface can be located by a reference given in degrees and minutes.

(ii) Rectangular Co-ordinate System:

 The lines of latitude and longitude become grid

lines on a flat map.

 When small areas are being studied there will be

only minor distortions in the layout of the grid.

 The rectangular co-ordinate systems are designed

to allow mapping of specific geographical regions e.g. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) plane grid system.

(iii) Non Co-ordinate System:

 Non co-ordinate systems provide spatial references

using a descriptive code rather than a co-ordinate. Example: Postal Code.

 This may be fully numeric or alphanumeric.  An automated process called geocoding is used to

create explicit geographic references (multiple locations) from implicit references (descriptions such as addresses).
 These geographic references allow us to locate features

and events on the earth's surface for analysis.

GIS DATA BASE

It consist of (i) The Spatial Database (ii) The Attribute Database

THE SPATIAL DATABASE The geographical features are described with their location and shape, and their spatial relationship to other features. The spatial data is obtained from maps and drawings. The information contained in the spatial database is held in the form of digital co-ordinates, which describe the spatial features. The different sets of data will be held as separate layers, known as thematic layers, which can be combined in a number of different ways for analysis or map production.

THE ATTRIBUTE DATABASE o The attribute database is of a more conventional type; it contains data describing characteristics or qualities of the spatial features i.e., descriptive information. o The attribute data is obtained from either record maintained by various organizations or by direct measurement. o The attribute data is stored in tabular or point form. The attribute information may be in the form of characters, numeric or alphanumeric. o GIS links spatial data with geographic information about a particular feature on a map. o The information is stored as attributes of the graphically represented feature.

SPATIAL ENTITIES
 Traditionally, maps have used symbols to represent realworld features.  The representation of real-world features is done using point, line and area entity.  The method chosen to represent a spatial feature will depend on the scale used.

Point: The discrete location represented as a co-ordinate pair. Points are used to represent features that are too small to be represented as areas (e.g. Post Box, Rain gauge, etc). Line: A set of ordered co-ordinates represented by a string of coordinates. Lines are used to represent features that are linear in nature (e.g. streams, power & pipelines, and transport routes, etc). They can also bee used to represent linear features that do not exist in reality (e.g. administrative boundary, basin boundary, etc). Polygon: A closed feature whose boundary encloses a homogeneous area represented by a closed string of co-ordinates which encompass an area. Some of these polygons exist on the ground, while others are imaginary. (e.g., lakes, agricultural fields, catchment area, land use, census tracts, hospital, town boundaries, etc).

SPATIAL DATA STRUCTURES

 Data structures provide the information that the computer requires to reconstruct the spatial data model in digital form.  There are two major methods to input, store and visualise mapped data in GIS.  The GIS data structure is classified into Raster Data and Vector Data.

Raster Data Structure Raster GIS, which store map features in raster or grid format, generalise the location of features to a regular matrix of cells. Raster GIS data structures are preferred for digital elevation modeling (DEM), statistical analysis, remotely sensed data, simulation modeling, and natural resource applications like sedimentation and water quality studies.

Vector Data Structure Vector Geographic Information Systems, which store map features in vector format, such as points, lines and polygons with high accuracy. They are preferred in urban applications where legal boundaries and the analysis of networks are important, in net work analysis, etc. Applications of urban GIS include location and allocation of critical resources such as hospitals, study of disease outbreak patterns and crime analysis.

MAP PROJECTIONS
 The location of spatial entities, in two dimensions, is the important task for the GIS analyst.  The method by which the world is laid flat is to use a map projection.  Map projection transfers the spherical Earth onto a twodimensional surface. In doing so, they approximate the true shape of the Earth.  Based on the projection method chosen, the error may be introduced in the spatial data.  Map projections are sets of mathematical models which transform spherical coordinates (i.e. latitude and longitude) to planar coordinates (x and y).

 In this process, data which actually lie on a sphere are projected onto a flat plane or a surface and converted to a planar section without stretching.  Positions on a globe are measured by angles (i.e. longitude & latitude) rather than X, Y (i.e. Cartesian) coordinates.  The longitude is measured as the number of degrees from the prime meridian, and the latitude is measured as the number of degrees from the equator.  The specific point on the surface of the earth is specified by the longitude and latitude of it.

 The map projection can be explained by means of glass sphere marked with grid lines is kept in front of a light sources and the way in which sphere projected outward.  Three types of developable surface such as plane, cone, or cylinder are placed outside the sphere in order to receive the shadows.  When the surface is opened the geographic features are displayed a flat plane.

TYPES OF MAP PROJECTION

The projection surfaces form the basic types of projections namely: (i) Conical Projection; (ii) Cylindrical Projection; (iii) Azimuthal Projection.

METHODS OF DATA INPUT Data, in analogue or digital form need to be encoded to be compatible with the GIS being used. All data in analogue form need to be converted to digital from before they can be input into GIS. Reformatting or conversion may also be required after analogue data have been converted to digital form. Four methods are widely used: Keyboard entry Manual digitizing Automatic digitizing Scanning

(i) Keyboard Entry Keyboard entry, often referred to as key coding, is the entry of data into a file at a computer terminal. This technique is used for attribute data that are only available on paper.

(ii) Manual Digitizing

 The most common method of encoding spatial feature from paper maps is manual digitizing.  It is an appropriate technique when a selection of features is required from a paper map.  Manual digitizing requires a table digitizer that is linked to a computer workstation.

(iii) Automatic Digitizing & Scanning:

Scanning is an appropriate method of data encoding when raster data are required. A scanning is a piece of hardware for converting an analogue source document into digital raster format transmitted or reflected light. Flat-bed scanners, Rotating drum scanners. The selection of appropriate scanning tolerance to ensure important data is encoded, and background data ignored. The format of files produced and the input of data to GIS software.

The accuracy of scanned output data depends on the quality of the scanner, the quality of the image-processing software used to process the scanned data, and the quality (and complexity) of the source document. Resolution affects the quality, and quantity, of output data. The higher the resolution, the larger the volumes of data produced. Automatic line follower this encoding method might be appropriate where digital versions of clear, distinctive lines on a map are required. The method reduces manual digitizing and uses a laserand light- sensitive device to follow the lines on the map.

DATA EDITING
Data may include errors derived from the original source. When the spatial data is obtained from the other sources the following questions are to be asked. They are: What data are available? What will the data cost? On what media will the data be supplied? What format will the data be in? During the encoding process there may be errors in coordinate data as well as inaccuracies and uncertainty in attribute data. The process is known as data editing or clearing. Data editing can be likened to the filter in the fuel tank. Three topics are covered here: detection and correction of errors; re-projection, transformation and generalization; and edge matching and rubber sheeting.

DETECTING AND CORRECTING ERRORS

 Errors in the source data; errors introduced during encoding; and errors propagated during data transfer and conversion.  Errors in source data may be difficult to identify.  During data transfer, conversion of data between different formats required by different packages may lead to a loss of data.  Errors in attribute data are relatively easy to spot and may be identified using manual comparison with the original data.

METHODS OF ATTRIBUTE DATA CHECKING

Impossible values Extreme values Internal consistency Scatter-diagrams Trend surface

Errors in spatial data are often more difficult to identify and correct than errors in attribute data. Depending on the data model being used (vector or raster) and the method of capture.

Common errors in spatial data Error Missing entities Duplicate entities Mislocated entities Missing labels Description Missing points, lines or boundary segments Points, lines or boundary segments that have been digitized twice Points, lines or boundary segments digitized in the wrong place Unidentified polygons

Duplicate labels Two or more identification labels for the same polygon Artifacts of digitizing Noise Undershoots, overshoots, nodes, loops and spikes Irrelevant data entered scanning or data transfer wrongly during placed

digitizing,

Re-projection, Transformation and Generalization: Data derived from maps drawn on different projections are converted into a common projection system before they can be combined or analysed is known as Re-projection. Data derived from various sources with different spatial referencing are transformed to a common grid system is known as Transformation. If source maps of widely differing scales are converted into a scale, which is comparable with, the data derived from smaller scale maps is known as Generalization. This will save processing time and disc space by avoiding the storage of unnecessary details.

Edge Matching and Rubber Sheeting Edge matching is simply the procedure to adjust the position of features that extend across typical map sheet boundaries. Theoretically data from adjacent map sheets should meet precisely at map edges. However, in practice this rarely occurs. Misalignment of features can be caused by several factors including digitizing error, paper shrinkage of source maps, and errors in the original mapping. Edge matching always requires some interactive editing. Accordingly, GIS software differs considerably in the degree of automation provided. Spatial database editing software that attempts to correct errors by stretching a map to fit known control points or monuments is called Rubber Sheeting. It uses Mathematical method to stretch or warp images to match existing vector data.

SPATIAL ANALYSIS AND GIS FUNCTIONS

Spatial Analysis not just a map. With GIS, users can turn data into information, ask questions and interact with the system. GIS provides both simple point-and-click query capabilities and sophisticated analysis tools to provide timely information to managers and analysts alike. GIS technology really comes into its own when used to analyse geographic data to look for patterns and trends and to undertake "what if" scenarios. Modern GIS have many powerful analytical tools, but two are especially important: proximity analysis and overlay analysis.

Proximity Analysis: GIS will answer the question How many? To answer such questions, GIS technology uses a process called buffering to determine the proximity relationship between features.

Overlay Analysis: The integration of different data layers involves a process called overlay. At its simplest, this could be a visual operation, but analytical operations require one or more data layers to be joined physically. This overlay, or spatial join, can for example link land-use and environmental data to population and disease data. Analysis requires data linkage, within the same dataset and/or in a second dataset. GIS uses geography, or space, as the common key element between datasets. Information is linked only if it relates to the same geographic area.

Spatio-Temporal Analysis:
 By adding a temporal (time) dimension to spatial data and analysis, changes that might occur regarding some variable/condition within the same location with time were tracked.  Also the variable/condition we are studying might change locations with time, or extend beyond the original location to involve additional ones.

Visualisation:
 For many types of geographic operation the end result is best visualised as a map or graph.  Maps are very efficient at storing and communicating geographic information. Map displays are integrated with reports, three-dimensional views, photographic images, and other output such as multimedia.

SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF RAINFALL OVER CHENNAI BASIN USING GIS

OBJECTIVE

To know the variations of rainfall from place to place over entire Chennai Basin.

Chennai Basin Map

Chennai Basin with Drainage, Rain gauge Location

Average Monthly Rainfall of each Station in Chennai Basin

SI. NO

STATION

JUN

JUL

AUG

SEP

OCT

NOV

DEC

JAN

FEB

MAR

APR

MAY

1 2 3 4 5

NUNGAMBAKKAM CHEPAK SRIPERUMBUDUR POONAMALLEE KORATTUR ANAICUT

76 21 72 64 29

104 45.9 97.4 92.6 84.8

116 46.6 121 102 73.7

130 42.9 121 107 91.2

245 73.3 203 173 116

350 118 281 218 166

164 70.2 143 98.6 72.5

18 9.2 18 18 12

29 13.6 8.7 14.1 17.5

2.5 1.7 4.3 2 3.4

13.8 4.3 27.2 7.1 5.3

36.9 3.8 40.4 22.4 11.9

6 7 8 9 10 11 12

CHEMBARAMBAKKAM SHOLINGHUR ARAKONAM KESAVARAM MINNAL R.K.PET PALLIPATTU

96 69 76 78 63 63 25

130 86.2 116 126 97.1 105 43.4

168 107 132 124 87.4 90 56.7

166 119 132 156 118 140 76.5

259 153 159 169 132 122 70.3

368 115 186 189 114 144 86.5

162 79.8 153 137 93.3 87.5 50.9

32 9.5 14 14 6.3 6.7 2.6

30.6 7.3 10.5 4 9.3 2.4 6.9

2.1 8.8 7.4 6.9 10.5 5.5 2.4

28.9 20.3 20 20.5 16.9 18.7 9.4

51.1 58.4 44.5 56.6 39.8 35.5 13.1

SI.NO 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

STATION THIRUTHANI POONDI THIRUVALLORE CHOLAVARAM VALLUR PONNERI THAMARAIPAKKAM REDHILLS TAMBARAM MEENAMBAKKAM SAIDAPET

JUN 48 77 77 97 89 72 46 88 74 79 13

JUL 77.7 105 118 76.4 78.1 65.4 78.8 88.4 103 104 35.6

AUG 116 139 140 117 122 118 91.8 105 147 136 45.2

SEP 139 136 139 113 143 167 116 119 127 138 56.6

OCT 137 168 196 220 211 259 176 250 244 265 86.8

NOV 177 219 289 272 395 371 275 362 327 359 150

DEC 70 110 128 118 137 153 124 166 148 182 65.6

JAN 12 15 20 27 24 28 15 23 26 26 13

FEB 13.1 14.2 11.4 41.9 21.2 33.7 30.5 23.5 24.8 21.4 13.3

MAR 4 1.8 2.1 5.5 2.3 7.5 1.4 13.9 9.4 9.5 0.9

APR 14.7 27.2 24.4 14.1 10.6 12.4 11 16.9 28 19.3 1.9

MAY 43.9 34.8 29.9 27.7 18.7 19.2 19 29.2 48 34.3 10.1

Division of Zones within Chennai Basin The Chennai basin had been divided into three zones namely a) Coastal region 0 to 15km zone 1 b) Middle region 15 to 50km zone 2 c) Far away from coastal 50 to end zone 3

Zone Division map of Chennai Basin

Seasonal Variation of Rainfall over Chennai basin

Rainfall (mm) Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Station SW NUNGAMBAKKAM CHEPAK SRIPERUMBUDUR POONAMALLEE KORATTUR ANAICUT CHEMBARAMBAKKAM SHOLINGHUR ARAKONAM KESAVARAM MINNAL R.K.PET PALLIPATTU THIRUTHANI POONDI THIRUVALLORE CHOLAVARAM VALLUR PONNERI THAMARAIPAKKAM REDHILLS TAMBARAM MEENAMBAKKAM SAIDAPET 425.49 156.28 410.65 365.48 278.40 559.74 380.83 456.88 483.72 366.08 397.43 201.60 380.94 456.70 473.74 403.42 432.20 421.94 332.34 400.93 450.71 456.12 150.27 NE 759.09 261.62 626.78 489.20 354.97 789.44 347.51 497.91 494.17 339.27 353.43 207.71 384.33 496.98 612.81 610.03 742.31 782.53 574.67 777.18 718.68 804.95 302.80 Winter 46.92 22.82 26.34 32.33 29.64 62.83 16.79 24.80 17.77 15.61 9.09 9.57 24.60 28.79 31.38 68.49 45.55 61.41 45.17 46.49 50.43 47.35 25.89 Summer 53.29 9.80 71.93 31.57 20.61 82.00 87.49 71.95 83.90 67.22 59.65 24.90 62.58 63.86 56.48 47.38 31.64 39.09 31.45 59.98 85.41 63.13 12.88 Annual 1284.80 450.51 1135.69 918.59 683.63 1494.00 832.61 1051.55 1079.56 788.18 819.60 443.78 852.45 1046.33 1174.41 1129.32 1251.69 1304.97 983.63 1284.58 1305.23 1371.55 491.84

Spatial Distribution of Rainfall during South West Monsoon

Spatial Distribution of Rainfall during North East Monsoon

Spatial Distribution of Rainfall during Winter

Spatial Distribution of Rainfall during Summer

Spatial Distribution of Annual Rainfall