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REFLEX TESTING
REFLEX TESTING
• The sensory and motor signals that comprise a reflex arc travel
over anatomically well characterized pathways. Pathologic
processes affecting discrete roots or named peripheral nerves will
cause the reflex to be diminished or absent. The Achilles Reflex
is dependent on the S1 and S2 nerve roots. Herniated disc
material can put pressure on the S1 nerve root, causing pain
along its entire distribution (i.e. the lateral aspect of the lower leg).
If enough pressure if placed on the nerve, it may no longer
function, causing a loss of the Achilles reflex.
• In extreme cases, the patient may develop weakness or even
complete loss of function of the muscles innervated by the nerve
root, a medical emergency mandating surgical decompression.
• A normal response generates an easily observed shortening of
the muscle. This, in turn, causes the attached structure to move.
The vigor of contraction is graded on the
following scale:
Grade Description
0 Absent; No evidence of contraction
1+ Decreased, but still present (hypo-reflexic)
2+ Normal or physiologic
3+ Increased and maybe normal or pathologic
4+ Markedy hyperactive with transient clonus
5+ Markedy hyperactive with sustained clonus
(Repetitive shortening of the muscle after a single
stimulation)
The Reflex Hammer
Technique:
• You will need to use a reflex hammer when performing
this aspect of the exam. Regardless of the hammer type,
proper technique is critical.
• The larger hammers have weighted heads, such that if
you raise them approximately 10 cm from the target and
then release, they will swing into the tendon with
adequate force.
• The smaller hammers should be swung loosely between
thumb and forefinger.
Small Hammers
Large Hammers
REFLEX TESTING
Technique:
• The muscle group to be tested must be in a neutral position (i.e.
neither stretched nor contracted).
• The tendon attached to the muscle(s) which is/are to be tested
must be clearly identified. The extremity should be positioned
such that the tendon can be easily struck with the reflex hammer.
• If you are having trouble locating the tendon, ask the patient to
contract the muscle to which it is attached. When the muscle
shortens, you should be able to both see and feel the cord like
tendon, confirming its precise location. You may, for example,
have some difficulty identifying the Biceps tendon within the
Antecubital Fossa. Ask the patient to flex their forearm (i.e.
contract their Biceps muscle) while you simultaneously palpate
the fossa. The Biceps tendon should become taut and thus
readily apparent.
• Strike the tendon with a single, brisk stroke. While this is done
firmly, it should not elicit pain. Occasionally, due to other medical
problems (e.g. severe arthritis), you will not be able to position the
patient’s arm in such a way that you are able to strike the tendon.
If this occurs, do not cause the patient discomfort. Simply move
on to another aspect of the exam.
ACHILLES REFLEX (S1, S2 – Sciatic Nerve):
Technique:
• This is most easily done with the patient seated, feet dangling
over the edge of the exam table. Other positions: supine, crossing
one leg over the other in a figure 4 or a frog-type position.
• Identify the Achilles tendon, a taut, discrete, cord-like structure
running from the heel to the muscles of the calf. If you are unsure,
ask the patient to plantar flex (i.e. “step on the gas”).
• Strike the tendon directly with your reflex hammer.
• Be sure that the calf if exposed so that you can see the muscle
contract.
• NORMAL RESPONSE: plantar flexion (contraction of the
Gastrocnemius).
ACHILLES TENDON
PATELLAR REFLEX (L3, L4 – Femoral Nerve):
Technique:
• This is most easily done with the patient seated, feet dangling
over the edge the exam table.
• Identify the patellar tendon, a thick, broad band of tissue
extending down from the lower aspect of the patella (knee cap). If
you are not certain where it’s located, ask the patient to extend
their knee. This causes the quadriceps (thigh muscles) to contract
and makes the attached tendon more apparent.
• Strike the tendon directly with your reflex hammer. If you are
having trouble identifying the exact location of the tendon (e.g. if
there is a lot of subcutaneous fat), place your index finger firmly
on top of it. Strike your finger, which should then transmit the
impulse.
• For the supine patient, support the back of their thigh with your
hands such that the knee is flexed and the quadriceps muscles
relaxed.
• NORMAL RESPONSE: The lower leg will extend at the knee.
(contraction of the Quadriceps)
Patellar Tendon
PATELLAR REFLEX TESTING
BICEP REFLEX (C5, C6 – Musculocutaneous Nerve):
Technique:
• Identify the location of the biceps tendon in the antecubital fossa.
The tendon will look and feel like a thick cord.
• The patient’s arm can be positioned in one of two ways:
A. Allow the arm to rest in the patient’s lap, forming an angle of
slightly more then 90 degrees at the elbow.
B. Support the arm in yours, such that your thumb is resting
directly over the biceps tendon (hold the right arm with your right)
• It may be difficult to direct your hammer strike such that the force
is transmitted directly on to the biceps tendon, and not dissipated
amongst the rest of the soft tissue in the area. If you are
supporting the patient’s arm, place your thumb on the tendon and
strike this digit. If the arm is unsupported, place your index or
middle fingers firmly against the tendon and strike them with the
hammer.
• NORMAL RESPONSE: elbow flexion
BICEP TENDON
BICEP REFLEX TESTING
BICEP REFLEX TESTING
BRACHIORADIALIS REFLEX (C5, C6 – Radial Nerve):
Technique:
• This is most easily done with the patient seated. The lower arm
should be resting loosely on the patient’s lap.
• The tendon of the Brachioradialis muscle cannot be seen or well
palpated, which makes this reflex a bit tricky to elicit. The tendon
crosses the radius (thumb side of the lower arm) approximately
10 cm proximal to the wrist.
• Strike this area with your reflex hammer. Usually, hitting
anywhere in the right vicinity will generate the reflex.
• NORMAL RESPONSE: elbow flexion and supination of the
forearm (turn palm upward).
BRACHIORADIALIS REFLEX
BRACHIORADIALIS REFLEX
TRICEP REFLEX (C7, C8 – Radial Nerve):
Technique:
• Identify the triceps tendon, a discrete, broad structure that can be
palpated as it extends across the elbow to the body of the muscle,
located on the back of the upper arm. Ask the patient to extend
their lower arm at the elbow while you observe and palpate in the
appropriate region
• The arm can be placed in either of 2 positions:
A. Gently pull the arm out from the patient’s body, such that it
roughly forms a right angle at the shoulder. The lower arm should
dangle directly downward at the elbow.
B. Have the patient place their hands on their hips.
• NORMAL RESPONSE: the lower arm to extend at the elbow and
swing away from the body. If the patient’s hands are on their hips,
the arm will not move but the muscle should shorten vigorously .
TRICEP BRACHII TENDON
TRICEP REFLEX (C7, C8 – Radial Nerve):
TRICEP REFLEX (C7, C8 – Radial Nerve):
DEEP TENDON REFLEXES
Pectoralis Reflex C5 – T1
• have patient elevate arm; place fingers of your left hand upon the pt’s
shoulders with your thumb extended downwards. Strike your thumb
directed slightly upwerd toward the pt’s axilla.
• NORMAL RESPONSE: muscle contraction can be seen or felt
Pronator Reflex C6 – C7
• grasp pt’s hand and hold it vertically so the wrist is suspended
• from the medial side, strike the distal end of the radius directlywith
horizontal blow
• NORMAL RESPONSE: pronation of the forearm
Upper Abdominal Muscle Reflex T8 – T9
• tap the muscles directly near their insertions on the costal margins and
xiphoid process
Mid Abdominal Muscle Reflex T9 – T10
• tapping an overlaid finger
Lower Abdominal Muscle Reflex T11 – T12
• tap the muscle insertion directly near the symphysis pubis
DEEP TENDON REFLEXES
Adductor Reflex L2 – L4
• patient supine, arrange the lower limb in slight abduction. Tap directly on
the Adductor magnus, just proximal to its insertion on the medial
epicondyle of the femur
• NORMAL RESPONSE: the thigh adducts
Hamstring Reflex L4 – S2
• Patient supine with hips and knees flexed at 90 degrees, and thigh
rotated slightly outward.
• place your left hand under the popliteal fossa to compress the medial
hamstring
• NORMAL RESPONSE: flexion of the knee and contraction of the medial
mass of hamstring
Making Clinical Sense of Reflexes:
Normal reflexes require that every aspect of the system function
normally. Breakdowns cause specific patterns of dysfunction.
Grasp Reflex
Stroke the pt’s palm so he grasps your index finger. If present, he
cannot release the fingers; lesions of the premotor cortex
Hoffmann’s Sign
Have pt present pronated hand with fingers extended and relaxed.
With your thumb, press his fingernails to flex the terminal digit and
stretch his flexor
Abnormal response: flexion and adduction of thumb
Mayer’s Reflex
Have pt present his supinated hand with thumb relaxed and
abducted. Grasp his ring finger and firmly flex the metacarpophalengeal
joint
Normal response: adduction and apposition of the thumb
Palm-Chin Reflex (Radovici’s sign)
Vigorous scratching or pricking of the thenar eminence causes
ipsilateral contraction of the muscles of the chin
SIGNS OF MENINGEAL IRRITATION
Nuchal Rigidity
- pt cannot place the chin upon the chest
- passive flexion of the neck is limited by involuntary muscle spasm
Spinal Rigidity
- movements of the spine are limited by spasms of the Erector spinae
Kernig’s Sign
- with pt supine, passively flex the hip to 90 deg while the knee is
flexed at about 90 deg
- attempts to extend the knee produce pain iun the hamstring and
resistance
Brudzinski’s Sign
- with pt supine and the limbs extended, passively flex the neck
- produces involuntary flexion of the hips
Making Sense of Neurological Findings
• While compiling information generated from the motor and sensory
examinations, the clinician tries to identify patterns of dysfunction
that will allow him/her to determine the location of the lesion(s).
What follows is one way of making clinical sense of neurological
findings.
• Is there evidence of motor dysfunction (e.g. weakness, spasticity,
tremor)?
• If so, does the pattern follow an upper motor neuron or lower motor
neuron pattern?
– If it’s consistent with a UMN process (e.g. weakness with spasticity),
does this appear to occur at the level of the spinal cord or the brain?
Complete cord lesions will affect both sides of the body. Brain level
problems tend to affect one side or the other. It is, of course, possible
for a lesion to affect only part of the cord, leading to findings that
lateralize to one side (see below, under description of Brown Sequard
lesion).
– Is it consistent with an LMN process (e.g. weakness with flaccidity)?
Does the weakness follow a specific distribution (e.g. following a spinal
nerve root or peripheral nerve distribution)? Bilateral? Distal?
Making Sense of Neurological Findings
• Do the findings on reflex examination support a UMN or LMN
process (e.g. hyper-reflexic in UMN disorders; hyporeflexic in LMN
disorders)?
• Do the findings on Babinski testing (assuming the symptoms involve
the lower extremities) support the presence of a UMN lesion?
• Is there impaired sensation? Some disorders, for example, affect
only the Upper or Lower motor pathways, sparing sensation.
• Which aspects of sensation are impaired? Are all of the ascending
pathways (e.g. spinothalamic and dorsal columns) affected equally,
as might occur with diffuse/systemic disease?
• Does the loss in sensation follow a pattern suggestive of dysfunction
at a specific anatomic level? For example, is it at the level of a
Spinal nerve root? Or more distally, as would occur with a peripheral
nerve problem?
• Does the distribution of the sensory deficit correlate with the
“correct” motor deficit, assuming one is present? Radial nerve
compression, for example, would lead to characteristic motor and
sensory findings.
THE END