T&D

THIRD MILLENNIUM
BUSINESS RESOURCE ASSOCIATES
PRIVATE LIMITED
Study Material
PGDM Programme : 2009-
11
Jagannath International
Management School
Kalkaji, New Delhi
• Corporate Consulting • Learning, Development and Education
• Human Resource Policies • Placement
THIRD MILLENNIUM BUSINESS RESOURCE ASSOCIATES PRIVATE LIMITED 1

Trimester - IV
Paper
Training and Development
Unit – I:
Training and Development – An Overview
Sub Topics
Concept of Training and Development
Models of Training
Learning and Training

Human Resource
(Personnel) Management
Traditional Definition
Human resource management is
the moulding of the human
resources in such a fashion that
the goals of the organisation are
met and at the same time the need
satisfaction of all the employees
at all the levels is attained to the
highest possible degree.
Human Resource (Personnel)
Management …Contd.
Modern Definition
Management is the planning, organising,
directing and controlling of the
procurement, development,
compensation, integration, maintenance,
and separation of human resources to
the end that individual, organisational
and societal objectives are are
accomplished. - Edwin B. Flippo

Management …Contd.
Contemporary Definition
Human resource management
(HRM) is the effective
management of people at work.
HRM examines what can or
should be done to make working
people more productive and
satisfied. - John M. Ivancevich

Profile of An HR Professional
To be a successful strategic human
resource management professional,
one needs to have
the negotiation skills of Mahatma Gandhi,

the care and compassion of Mother Teresa,
the brain of Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam,
the big picture mentality of Late Dhirubhai
Ambani,
the charm and charisma of Ms. Saina Nehwal
and the hide of a Rhinoceros.

Changing Role of HRM
1900’s - Employee Advocate
1940’s - Passive Administrator
1960’s - Reactive Provider /
Compliance Monitor
1980’s - Reactive Partner /
Specialist Service Provider
1990’s - Proactive Partner /
Business Manager
2000’s - Change Agent /
Internal Consultant
Human Resource
Management
I. General Functions
1. Policies (Voluntary)
2. Labour Legislation (Statutory)
II. Specific Functions
1. Planning
2. Hiring / Acquisition / Procurement /
Employment (Recruitment and
Selection )
3. Development
4. Reward / Compensation
Management
5. Integration / Employee Relations
6. Maintenance / Employee Services
7. Separation
General Functions
1. Policy
A. Guidelines for Carrying
Out Human Resource
Management as desired
by the organisational
management.

General Functions …Contd.
2. Labour Legislation
B. Guidelines for Carrying Out
Human Resource
Management as desired by
the Government of the
country.

Specific Functions
1. Planning
A. Job Analysis, Evaluation
and Rating
B. Human Resource
Inventory, Accounting and
Audit
C. Demand and Supply
Forecasting
Specific Functions …Contd.
2. Hiring / Acquisition / Procurement /
Employment (Recruitment and
Selection)
A. Relevant Hiring Qualifications
B. Preferred Sources for Recruitment
C. Choosing Appropriate Selection
Tools / Methods
D. Ensuring ‘Best Fit’ between Jobs
and Candidates

3. Development (Skill enhancement for
appropriate Work Performance)
A. Bases / Competencies for Employee
Career Progression
B. Decision on Appropriate Mix of ‘On-the-
Job’ and ‘Off–the–Job’ Training
C. Delivery of Non–Executive and
Executive Level Training Programs
D. Other support for Employee
Development like opportunity to work
on ‘Cutting Edge Technology Projects’

4. Reward / Compensation (Financial
and Non-Financial Rewards)
A. Appropriate Compensation (Wage and
Salary) Structure benchmarked to
Industry Norms and sufficient to keep
employees motivated towards achieving
Organisational Goals.
B. Other Reward Schemes like ESOPs,
Opportunity to work on Preferred
Projects, Dollars Salaries, etc.
C. Newer / Novel Ways of Compensating
Employees
5. Integration / Employee Relations
(Harmony between individual and
organisational interests)
A. Designing of systems that automatically
recognizes good performers
B. Designing grievance handling system
C. Delegation of authority and
responsibility with a view to develop a
sense of ownership
D. Empowerment
E. Inter and intranet
F. Gender issues
6. Maintenance / Employee
Services (Retention of able
and willing employees)
A. Employee Services to be
provided
B. Systems design to reduce
Attrition Rate below industry
norms

7. Separation (Parting of ways
in the most amicable
manner)
A. Ensure smooth processing of
resignations, retirements,
terminations and in death cases.
B. Voluntary Retirement Schemes
C. Mechanism to learn from
separations, e.g., Exit Interviews

Diagnostic Model for
Human Resource Management
External Diagnose Internal
Environmental Prescribe Environmental
Influences Implement Influences
Evaluate
Human Resource Processes

Acquiring Rewarding Developing Maintaining and
Human Human Human Protecting Human
Resources Resources Resources Resources
Focus of each process is on people and results

Desirable End Results
Socially responsible and Competitive, high quality Competitive, high quality
ethical practices product(s) service(s)

Six Senses of
A Human Resources Professional
1. Sound Human Relations
2. An Eye for Spotting Talent
3. A Nose for Smelling
Opportunities
4. A Feel for Team Work
5. A Taste for Building
Organisational Culture
6. Creative Initiative
Source: Wipro Infotech Ad

Human Resource
Development Concept
Human Resource Development
is the process of helping people
to acquire competencies.

Human Resource
Development Concept …Contd.
In the organisation context, Human
Resource Development is a process by
which the employees are helped in a
continuous and planned way to:
1. Acquire or sharpen capabilities required to
perform various functions associated with
their present or expected future roles.
2. Develop their general capabilities as
individuals and discover and exploit their
inner potential for their own and / or
organisational development purposes.

Human Resource
Development Philosophy
Human Resource Development is
based upon a recognition of the human
potential inherent in every employee.
It can also certainly be said that there
is under-utilisation of individual, team
and organisational potential.
It also accepts the reality that there can
be deviousness and dis-functionality in
employee behavior in spite of genuine
organisational initiative.
Human Resource
Development Philosophy …Contd.
Human Resource Development
believes that this manipulative
behavior is the weakness or a
defense mechanism on the part of the
employees arising partly from
personality factor and partly from
organisational factor and believe that
such employees can be helped
through appropriate fitment,
feedback, counseling, training and
other organisational actions.
Steps in HRD Interventions
1. Detailed discussion with the

top management regarding
their expectations from the
employees.
2. Identify management
problems / issues in general
and departmental problems in
particular.
Steps in HRD
Interventions …Contd.
3. Involve line managers fully to
understand their perceptions of
HRD needs and initiate the process
of participative management of the
HRD function.
4. To identify Training and
Development needs of employees
at all levels as perceived by the
management and as perceived by
the employees themselves.
Steps in HRD
5. To compare and match the
training and developmental
needs identified in step 4.
6. Design an HRD action plan

in consultation with top
management.

Steps in HRD
7. Implement the plan
8. Evaluate periodically
9. Bring in continuous
improvement

Pre-Requisites for
Effective HRD
1. Intrinsic faith on the human
capabilities and potential
2. Commitment of top management
as also of all managers is
essential for effective achievement
of organisational goals through
HRD
3. HRD for its optimal utility needs to
have a receptive climate as the
first step
Pre-Requisites for
Effective HRD …Contd.
4. Any HRD effort must
encompass a majority of the
workforce to retain its
momentum and to give
results.
5. HRD is not the prerogative of
the staff functionaries alone.
Role of line managers is of
equal and vital importance.
Pre-Requisites for
6. The HRD movement has to be an
integrated approach going beyond
simple training and development,
continuously trying to explore new ways
of developing people at various levels.
7. An organisation must develop its HRD
philosophy based on it’s own history
corporate culture and managerial
participants. As a result, strategies of
initiating and strengthening HRD efforts
will vary from organisation to
organisation.
Pre-Requisites for
8. Patience and perseverance
on the part of all concerned is
of paramount importance.
Since HRD is concerned with
dynamic entities (Humans)
who have a tremendous
amount of inertia, changes
can’t be brought about
overnight.
Integrated Human Resource
Development Model
Vision Successful Succession
Mission Organisation Planning
Organisational
Business / Service Plan
Structure
Human Resource Policy and Planning
Compensation (Wage and Salary) Recognition, Career Training and
Reward and
Administration Incentive
Planning Development
Procurement (Recruitment & Selection)

Induction and Orientation Appraisal (Performance and Potential
Placement and Reportability Key Areas (Target,

Performance, Result)
KTA, KPA, KRA

HRD and HRM
View: Baburaj V Nair
We have a mindset of following the
established notions of anything, rather
than exploring them. Further, any
attempt to look at differently is scorned
by one’s own peer groups. The main
issue seems to be lack of conviction.
They show an attribute of Avoidance to
Confront due to an acute fear of being
exposed of her / his ‘knowledge.’

HRD and HRM …Contd.
Our motto seems to be ‘Better

Accept the prevailing notions,
rather than counter them’.
We hope that more people will
confront issues logically, without
keeping doubts lingering in their
minds.
Quite a lot of professionals talk about
HRM and HRD with different perspectives.
We shall attempt to bring out sharply the
difference in perceptions on the
understanding of these terms.
Point of view: Human Resource
Development is a part of Human Resource
Management.

Counter Point: Human Resource
Management is a part of Human
Resource Development.
The Point of Contention: The perceived
understanding of the word HRD and
HRM.
We felt that it is better to analyse the
uncommon parts of these terms i.e.
Development and Management.
Many more such differences

can be identified by minutely
studying the word
management and the style of
managing people, especially
in Indian Organisations.

Development
Develop means becoming fuller or grow.
Development means a process of growth
or advancement or learning.
Management
Manage means to regulate. Management
means the process of controlling.
[Management also means trickery; deceit
– The concise Oxford Dictionary]

Development
Encouraging SHIP (Systems,
Human beings, Information and
Processes) to advance in a given
context.
Management
Controlling SHIP (Systems, Human
beings, Information and Processes).

Development
Focus is: encourage to grow
Management
Focus is: regulate or control
Development
Non-evaluative in nature
Management
Evaluative in nature

Development
Non-bureaucratic
Management
Bureaucratic
Development
Research based
Management
No research base is used

Development
Leadership style is participative,
long-term result oriented
Management
Leadership style is regulative,
autocratic, short-term result
oriented

Development
Mentoring (Mentoring is more like the
role of a wise advisor. Mentor, in Greek
mythology, was Odysseus’ trusted
counsellor, who became the guardian
and teacher of Telemachus. The term
‘mentor’ is thus credited with the
connotation of an advisor or a wise
person) is a part.
Management
Mentoring is not a part
Development
Crucial elements are: Trust, Openness,
Empathy and Continuous learning
Management
Crucial elements are: Conformity, Fear,
Anxiety, Sympathy and Qualification oriented
Development
Growth oriented and pro-active
Management
Maintenance oriented and reactive (Fire-
fighting)
Development
Based largely on theory ‘Y’
Management
Tends to be based on theory ‘X’
Development
Major task is to institutionalise the
processes
Management
Major task is development of systems,
monitoring and reviewing

Development
It involves finding out Choices.
Exploring deeply. Experimenting
and Acting on them.
Management
It involves acting with the given
choices. Without much
exploration.
Therefore, if HRD is a part of
HRM, then does it mean in all
organisations, the factors listed
above as developmental is
taking place under the umbrella
of HRM? Where is the focus –
on Managing people or
Developing them?

If HRM is really meant by professionals with an
understanding that managing people in
tomorrow’s context can not be done without
developing people, and the points listed in the
column under development are a part of
managing people, then we may consider HRD as
a part of HRM.
But, if HRM is being meant by the elements of
‘Managing’ as depicted above, then HRM is a
part of HRD, rather than vice versa.
You can manage human resources without
developing them, but can we develop individuals
without trying to manage them?

Rejoinder – T.V. Rao
The above view point is logical and reads
well. The differences are commonalities of
HRM and HRD are to be viewed in the
historical context of HRD in India and not
merely from Oxford dictionary of English.
For me, HRM deals with people
management or more respectively
Personnel Management. People
management is in a context – the context
is that of business in organisations.
Rejoinder – T.V. Rao …Contd.
This organisational context changes the
meaning of management. Management is
a dynamic process. You are managing
constantly. Regulating and controlling is
only one part of management – may be an
important part. A good manager is also a
developer of resources. He mobilises
people, inspires them, develops them,
utilises them, monitors their work,
progress, output, etc.
Thus management by its role is
inclusive of development.
Development could be narrow and is
possible to take place without
management. You may develop the
skills of an employee but what use it
has if they do not contribute to the
good of the organisation, fellow
employees and the employee
himself?
It is this narrow meaning of
development that makes it a part of
management. Having said this I agree
that HRM in the past neglected HRD. I
also agree that ‘D’ gets submerged into
‘M’ and eventually gets neglected. That
is the reason why in those
organisations where such risk is
involved we separate out HRD
departments from personnel or HR
departments.
THE CONCEPT OF
TRAINING AND
DEVELOPMENT
(LEARNING AND
DEVELOPMENT)
THIRD MILLENNIUM BUSINESS RESOURCE ASSOCIATES PRIVATE LIMITED
How many of you are
familiar with the following
names?
Desh Prem Azad
Ramakant Achrekar

They are the coaches of
Kapil Dev
Sachin Tendulkar
This is real teamwork. The
coach works behind the
scene unknown to people
while their trainees become
known all over the world.
Why Training And
Development?
Training and development are
powerful tools to ensure that the
‘best fit’ established between a
position and a person at the
time of acquisition is maintained
throughout the period of
organisation – employee
relationship

Why Training And
Development? …Contd.
Employee training has
become increasingly
important as jobs have
become more sophisticated
and influenced by
technological changes.

Training
Training is a short term
process utilising a
systematic and organised
procedure by which non –
managerial personnel learn
technical knowledge and
skills for definite process.

Development
Development is a long term
education process utilising a
systematic and organised
procedure by which
managerial personnel learn
conceptual and theoretical
knowledge for general
purpose.
Training (or Development)
is a learning experience that
seeks a relatively
permanent change in an
individual that will improve
his or her ability to perform
on the job.
Training, Development
and Education
The terms training, development and
education are used in different ways
by various authors. Training is often
described as focusing on the
acquisition of KSAs needed to
perform more effectively on one’s
current job. Development is used by
many to refer to the acquisition of
KSAs needed to perform in some
future job.
and Education …Contd.
Some value may come from
distinguishing between KSA acquisition
for a current job and a future job, but we
feel that the use of the terms training
and development create confusion,
because the creation of KSAs is largely
the same regardless of when the KSAs
are needed. One cannot develop KSAs
without some form of training or
educational experience.

We use the terms training and
development here to refer to distinct
but related aspects of learning:
Training is a set of activities, and
development is the desired outcome
of those activities. Training is the
systematic process of providing an
opportunity to learn KSAs for current
or future jobs; development refers to
the learning of KSAs.
In other words, training provides the
opportunity for learning, and
development is the result of the
learning. “Training departments” and
“management training” are now called
human resource development (HRD)
departments and management
development, respectively. The change
in terminology reflects the change from
a focus on the process (training) to a
focus on the outcome (development).
Education is typically differentiated
from training and development by
the types of KSAs developed.
Training is generally focused on
job-specific KSAs, and education
focuses on more general KSAs,
related (but not specifically
tailored) to a person’s career or
job.
This distinction is satisfactory, but
education should not be thought of as
something that is done only outside the
organisation. For example, many
organisations provide literacy training
for their employees. This training is not
tailored to the specific job requirements
of these employees but is directed at
developing general reading and writing
skills.
Current Scenario
o What should happen ?

(Ideal orientation)
o What is happening ?
(Real orientation)
o What can I / we do about it ?
(Action orientation)

Overview of Training
Experienced trainers know that

effective training is structured as
a continuous performance
improvement process that is
integrated with other systems
and business strategies. The
key word here is process.

…Contd.
The training process involves:
1. Identification of performance
improvement opportunities and
analysis of what caused the
opportunity to exist.
2. Identification of alternative
solutions to the opportunity and
selection of the most beneficial
solution.
…Contd.
The training process involves: …
Contd.
3. Design and implementation

of the solution and
4. Evaluation of results.
A training programme (one of
many possible performance
improvement solutions) would
emerge from the training
process.
Training and Development –
A Strategic Perspective
Where is the organisation Where does the organisation want
currently? to be?
Business Gap What human resource (Sum total
What human resource
(Sum total of available of needed competency) the
competency) the Human Resource Gap organsation should have?
organisation has?
• Knowledge
• Skills
• Attitudes No
Yes
Whether training is the right solution to bridge the gap?
Evaluation of
Design programmes with Conduction of programmes
programmes
precise objectives to reduce
the gap
Improved programme and organisation
Feedback
Lack of improvement in programme and organisation

Objective:
To achieve long-term lasting
improvement in the way employees
do their jobs.
Pre-Requisite:
Removing mental blocks for
attitudinal change and acceptance of
any kind of change.

Types of Training
Training and development activities can
be either organised within the
organisation or else employees could be
sent to attend external courses
organised by reputed training institutes.
Employees can also be sent for
educational courses in universities and
other academic institutions. These three
types of training activities shall be
discussed briefly.
Types of Training …Contd.
1. In-house Training Courses
(programmes where all participants
are from the same organisation)
If the training can be organised and
conducted on an in-company basis,
there will be a number of benefits.
a) Course content will be tailor-made to suit
the learning objectives of the trainees, in
the context of the organisation.
b) Real organisational examples can be
used, which will have a high degree of
relevance for the trainees.

1. In-house Training Courses …Contd.
c) The trainees are more likely to find
themselves among people that they know,
and will, therefore, have to spend less time
becoming acclimatised socially and possibly
geographically. They should therefore be
able to start learning sooner.
d) The training can more readily be integrated
with on-job instruction or practice, as the
organisation will have control over the time
tables for both and can arrange for half a
day’s off-job instruction to be followed by
half a day’s on-job practice to reinforce the
instruction.

1. In-house Training Courses …Contd.
e) If the organisation has the necessary
resources and expertise within the
organisation, it will be more economical
to use these to meet the needs of a
group of trainees, rather than paying
course fee for them all to attend
programmes at some other institution.
One can always supplement it by
selective use of external guest
speakers.
2. External Courses
These too have a range of advantages
which can make them a more attractive
proposition in certain circumstances.
a) They can bring together the expertise
of a number of specialists, over a
range of subjects, which might not be
available in-house.
b) They can bring together a range of
facilities which would not be
economically viable on a small training
budget.
2. External Courses …Contd.
c) They can allow for a valuable cross-
fertilisation of ideas between
organisations, which can prevent the
sort of stagnation which occurs when
an organisation becomes too
introspective. Provided that this does
not lead to leakage of confidential
company information, this can be a
very useful spin-off from external
training.
d) They create an opportunity for learning
to take place away from the
distractions and interruptions of
organisational life. If there is a sudden
crisis, it is all too easy to knock on the
door of the in-house training room and
ask for ‘Joe’ to come out and help
downstairs for a little while. If Joe is
out of the building at an external
training establishment, there is a lot
less chance of this happening.

While these advantages and
disadvantages will need to be
weighed up carefully, the deciding
factor in many cases will be the
availability of a suitable external
course.

3. Educational Courses
They are provided by colleges of
distance / part-time / full-time education,
technical colleges, polytechnics,
universities and specialist colleges. They
may also be offered by private institutions.
Such courses, at whatever level, are
designed, first and foremost, to meet
educational objectives. That is, they are
geared to providing the individual with a
background knowledge, usually of a range
of interrelated subjects.
3. Educational Courses …Contd.
This background knowledge may be
essential for effective job performance,
now and in the future, but it will not
actually teach the individual how to do his
present job.
Educational courses can, therefore, be
used for all age groups and all types of
employees.

Principles
The prime objective of Training and
Development is to achieve a precisely
defined and directed change in the
‘behaviour’ of the individuals which is
meaningful to the organisation. The
above premise suggests a few
principles to be borne in mind while
using the tool as an aid to modify the
behaviour / attitude of the people.

Principles …Contd.
1. The training cell should set its goals, in
tune with the organisation’s requirements
as the primary step and assess the
feasibility of achieving these within the
cell’s resources and capability as far as
possible.
2. It should be ascertained that the learnings
/ changed behaviours are possible to be
transferred to work situations with the
support of the organisational climate and
individual efforts.

3. The participants to be enrolled for training
events are important to the needs of the
organisation.
4. The training events / exercises to be
arranged and conducted in a way which
would provide stimulus to learn through
appropriate motivations during the training
course.
5. The training cell should ensure systems /
procedures to monitor the post-training
developments in the activity and attitude of
the participants / organisation.
6. Training and Development activities are
not to be treated as periodical
exercises only, but as continuous
attempts to probe into people’s ideas,
talents, etc. and ‘wants’ of the
organisation as well.
An awareness of these principles as
guidelines shall enable the trainer to
establish her / his positive role and
justification of the investments made on
training and development programmes.
Strategies
The simplistic dictionary meaning of
strategy stands for the art of projecting
and directing operations (in military
context). However, for our discussion,
the expression has a different
connotation. It means the specific
considerations the Trainer would have
in regard to methods, arrangements,
training and development exercises,
effective in the context of the
organisational climate and goals.
Strategies …Contd.
Accordingly, the subject of discussion will
be confined purely to those features and
factors which would make the training
(and development) in an organisation a
meaningful use of the ideas / resources to
be invested in training activities.
Mostly, the selection of strategies in

training is dictated by expediency and
rarely accompanied by a pause and need-
based considerations.

To ensure proper formulation of
the required strategies, these
should have the qualities of:
a. Compatibility, i.e. must be
compatible with the objectives of
the instructions, quality of the
trainees, climate of the
organisation, facilities available in
the organisation and capability of
the instructors.
b. Ingenuity / flexibility, i.e., since there is no
single prescription of strategies available
which is universally applicable irrespective
of the situation, the trainer should have in
her / his ‘kit’ alternative choices (including
innovative ones) which would work out the
desired result of the training and
development activities. Ignorance /
negligence of these attending qualities,
might render the learning process and
trainee participation ineffective and
thereby, the inputs of training events
irrelevant to the training and development
goals.
c. Any sensible strategy must
keep in mind both “Need to
Know” as well as “Want to
Know” aspects with regard to
the participants in a particular
programme.

Factors in
Strategy Selection
1. Instructional objectives
2. Course contents
3. Participant selection
4. Instructors / faculty
5. Facilities – space, equipments, course
materials
6. Time available for conducting the
course
7. Costs to be incurred for arranging and
completing the course

Factors in
Strategy Selection …Contd.
The strategies adopted not in
tune with the considerations in
regard to the above factors are
likely to make the training efforts
ineffective / partially effective.

Learning and
Development Proposal
A proposal typically must contain:
1. Perspective / Background
2. Objective(s)
3. Content(s)
4. Methodology
5. Duration
6. Faculty
7. Administrative arrangements
8. Investment / Cost Implications

MODELS OF TRAINING

Simplistic Model – Steps
1. Need identification and
analysis
2. Designing programmes
3. Methodologies to be used
4. Evaluation
Simple Model of Training Process
Improved
Participant
Participant
Behaviour
Training
Organisation Greater
Organisational
Effectiveness

IMPACT Model
1. Identify Training Needs
2. Map the Approach
3. Produce Learning Tools
4. Apply Training Techniques
5. Calculate Measurable Results
6. Track Ongoing Follow-
Through
IMPACT Model …Contd.
1. Identify Training Needs
Determine if and how training can play
a role in improving job performance;
target training outcomes.
2. Map The Approach
Choose the appropriate training
approach(es) that will best support the
targeted outcomes and improve job
performance.

3. Produce Learning Tools
Produce all training / coaching
components (e.g., materials,
audiovisual aids, job aids, etc.)
4. Apply Training Techniques

Deliver the training as designed to
ensure successful results.

5. Calculate Measurable Results
Assess whether your training /
coaching accomplished actual
performance improvement,
communicate the results, and redesign
the process as necessary.
6. Track Ongoing Follow-Through
Hone in on the techniques that
individuals and organisations can use
to ensure that the impact of their
training does not diminish.

Elaborated Model of Training Process
Improved
Improved
Participant Training Participant
Organisation
Behaviour
Feedback
Greater
Improved
Organisation System Organisational
Training
Effectiveness

A Training Process Model
A general systems model has for long been
used as a description of business
organisations. This model is called the Open
System Model. Open systems have a
dynamic relationship with their environment.
The system is open to influences from its
environment and, in fact, depends on the
environment for input. The system takes
inputs from the environment and transforms
them into outputs. Outputs enter the system’s
environment and may or may not influence
future inputs into the system. A business is a
type of open system, operating in the same
manner as other open systems.

A Training Process
Model …Contd.
A system (such as a business) must be
responsive to the needs and demands of its
environment, because the environment
provides the input needed for the system to
replenish itself. For example, if a business is
responsive to the needs of society by
providing valued goods and services
(output), it receives valued input from society
in the form of financial and goodwill credits.
These inputs are used by the business to
continue operating. If the business does not
provide sufficient value to its environment, it
will fail because the environment will not
provide the input necessary for the system to
replenish itself.
A Training Process
Model …Contd.
Although the business must meet the needs
of its environment, it must also protect itself
from aspects of the environment that are
harmful to the system.
The dotted line in the next slide represents
the barrier between the system and the
environment. The spaces in the line indicate
the barrier is semi-permeable, allowing parts
of the environment (input) and system
(output) to cross over. The barrier represents
the organisation’s policies, systems and
procedures that are designed to allow only
certain components of the external
environment to enter the system.

A Training Process
Model …Contd.
Open System
Input Process Output
Systems External Environment

A Training Process
Model …Contd.
For example, the company must hire
employees (input), but it does not hire just
anyone. It wants to hire only those who can
make a positive contribution to the
organisation’s goals (desirable input).
Therefore, it sets up criteria for selecting
employees from the labour pool, allowing
only those with the proper qualifications to
enter the organisation. On the other hand,
the company must comply with the laws set
up by society or face sanctions (undesirable
input) and some of those laws address the
criteria that can be used in selecting
employees (e.g., equal employment
opportunity and affirmative action).
A Training Process
Model …Contd.
Thus input from one area of the
environment (the law) influences the
nature of barriers that allow input from
another area of the larger system (the
labour pool). The organisation’s policies,
systems and procedures allow it to
examine and analyse the environment to
determine which components of the
environment to respond to and what
response is most appropriate.
Employee training can enable companies
to adapt to changing conditions and be
more effective in the marketplace.

A Training Process
Model …Contd.
This increased effectiveness is made
possible if training allows employees to learn
how to improve performance and prepares
them for changes in how their jobs are
structured. However, training does not
always result in these outcomes. Training is
an “opportunity” for learning, but what is
learned depends on many factors, including:
1. How well the training matches the
needs of the employees and the
organisation.
2. The quality with which training is
designed and implemented
3. The learning climate of the organisation

A Training Process
Model …Contd.
At its worst, training can be an isolated
programme of activities unrelated to the
goals of the business, the trainees’
performance or the nature of their jobs.
Think back to a time when some one was
trying to teach you something that you did
not think would be useful or relevant to you.
Did you pay much attention? How much did
you remember of what the person was trying
to teach one week after the lesson? When a
training programme is designed without an
understanding of the business reasons for
the training and the ways in which the
training will affect employee performance,
employees tend to discount its relevance.
A Training Process
Model …Contd.
Little learning or job improvement is likely to
result. To avoid such training failures
training professions apply the following
principles to maximise the effectiveness of
training:
1. Understand the needs of the
organisation and the trainees.
2. Develop clear objectives for what the
training should accomplish for both the
organisation and the trainees.
3. Design and develop training to meet
the objectives.
4. Provide a supportive learning
environment for the training.
A Training Process
Model …Contd.
5. Design and conduct the training in a manner
that motivates trainees to learn.
6. Work with others in the organisation to identify
and remove barriers to using the new
knowledge and skills on the job.
7. Evaluate appropriately as feedback for
improvement.
Our training process model is a systematic
approach to ensuring that the principles listed
are applied and training objectives are
achieved. Training, at its best, uses the
following model as a set of processes aimed at
continuously improving employees and
organisational systems, including the training
itself. The key is a commitment to the training
processes.
Training As An Open System
Many open systems exist as part of another
open system and are called subsystems of
the larger system. For example, a product
assembly system is a subsystem of a
manufacturing system, which itself is a
subsystem of the company, which is a
subsystem of the industry and so on. In the
open systems model, training can be seen
as a subsystem within the larger system of
HR, which is a subsystem of the company.
Figure in the next slide illustrates some of
the exchanges that take place between the
training system and the larger
organisational system.
Training As A Subsystem
Within the Organisational System
Training’s Organisational Environment
Mission Strategy Structure Policies Procedures
Finances Resources People Products

Technology
Training Subsystem
Organisational Needs Analysis Knowledge
Employee Needs Design Skills
Budget Development Attitudes
Equipment Implementation Motivation
Staff Evaluation Job Performance

Training As
An Open System …Contd.
The organisation's mission, strategies,
resources and the like all represent
sources of input into the training
subsystem. Of course, if the training
department is part of a larger HR function,
then these inputs would be filtered through
that system. Organisational inputs are
translated by the training subsystem into
usable input such as organisational and
employee needs, training budgets, staff,
equipment and so forth. The input is
utilised to produce the output of the
training system (improved KSAs, job
performance and so on).
Training As
An Open System …Contd.
This illustration shows how interconnected the
training activities are with what is happening in
the organisation as a whole. Unless training
takes into account and meets the expectations
of the business, the business will institute
sanctions on the training system (e.g., reduced
budgets, staff and other resources) rather than
providing it with more desirable inputs. Training
in Action ( Examples like TRAINING NEEDS IN
THE STUDENT REGISTRATION OFFICE,
SELLING PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS,
TEAM BUILDING SIZZLES THEN FIZZLES )
demonstrate the consequences of a poor match
between the training system and the
organisational environment.
Training: A Process
Implied in the open systems model is that
training is a process, not just a programme
or a set of programmes. To be sure,
training does consist of programmes.
When a particular training need is
identified, a training programme may be
developed to address that need. However,
prior to this point the organisation invested
money in the training function, for which it
expects a favourable return. At the end of
the year, the organisation will determine
how favourable the returns have been and
determine what its next investment will be.

Training: A Process …Contd.
Thus, viewing training as simply a
programme or set of programmes, is too
short-sighted. Effective training is about
meeting organisational needs, not just
conducting training programmes. When
training is viewed as a set of integrated
processes in which organisational and
employee needs are analysed and
responded to in a rational, logical and
strategic manner, the organisation will
improve and is likely to invest in further
training. Our model of training processes,
depicted in the next slide, reflects this
approach.
Training Processes Model
Needs Analysis Phase
Design Phase
Triggering Development Phase

Event Input Process Output
Implementation Phase
Process
Input Process Output Evaluation
Data
Outcome
Evaluation
Evaluation Phase
Data Input Process Output

Training: A Process …Contd.
We will briefly describe the phases and their inputs
and outputs.
The training process begins with some type of
triggering event. The triggering event is the recognition
of an organisational performance deficiency (OPD).
When the actual organisational performance (AOP)
is less that the expected organisational performance
(EOP), OPD exists.
The British Airways case provides an example of

how a training system can be designed to ensure
that training staff appropriately analyse and
respond to the organisational environment.
Case Study –
Training a Key Factor in
British Airways Turnaround
In the early 1980s, British Airways (BA) was in
serious trouble. It lost £544 million (about $1.3
billion) in 1981-1982 and was continuing to
lose money at the rate of about £200 a minute.
The company faced laying off about 20,000
employees, closing down unprofitable routes
and disposing of substantial assets just to stay
in business. In 1983 the board of directors
charged Colin Marshall with reestablishing the
company as “the world’s favorite airline,” a title
it once wore proudly. By 1987, Marshall and
his executive team revitalised the company
enough to merge with British Caledonian and
be privatised.
Case Study –
British Airways Turnaround …Contd.
British Airways then showed a steady rise
in performance and profitability, bringing it
back to world-class status. Training was a
significant part of Marshall’s strategy for
revitalisation. However, he recognised that
just training people was not enough. He
knew that employees’ new skills and
abilities must be supported by the
company’s systems and procedures. Thus
he insisted that the training be integrated
with all the other “people” and business
initiatives being developed.
Case Study –
The central focus of British Airways’

strategy was a total dedication to the
passenger. “Winning for Customers”
was a core programme in this
strategy. It assessed manager’s
skills and identified areas for
development. The carefully chosen
title constantly reminded managers
to focus their activities on what was
best for the customer.
Case Study –
Other human resource development
(HRD) systems redesigned to support this
strategy included the following:
1.A programme of performance feedback,
used on a quarterly basis, to measure
strengths and weaknesses of managers
via a framework of “key” management
practices
2.A series of programmes called
“Managing Winners” developed to meet
the training needs identified in “Winning
for Customers”

Case Study –
3. A number of customer-focused training
initiatives to provide all employees with
skills to deal with service failures and
customer retention.
4. A new learning centre, using state-of-
the-art learning and training systems,
open to employees at all levels.
Training programs at BA are a part of an
integrated system in which each
programme builds on the learning
achieved in earlier programmes.

Case Study –
The following systems were put in place
to ensure that training was linked to the
customer service strategy:
1. To ensure training consistency, a
framework was developed specifying
the skills to be developed in each
training module.
2. Professional capability performance
standards (e.g., platform skills, content
knowledge and use of training
methods) are set for trainers.

Case Study –
3. Customer service training is compared
to “best practices” both within British
Airways and externally.
4. Line managers are partnered with
trainers to work out common language
and concepts to ensure the practicality
of training and its transfer to the job
site.

Case Study –
These practices help to maximise return
to the organisation from the training
investment. However, BA knew that
training will not solve every customer
service problem. The following seven-
step process was used to identify the
location and cause of the problem, then
to develop the best solution.
1. Conduct customer satisfaction analyses
to identify areas where customer
service needs improvement.

Case Study –
2. Conduct “root cause” analysis to
determine whether the problem stems
from employees’ abilities or from other
factors such as motivation or work
procedures.
3. Develop the appropriate intervention
strategy. If it is a training intervention,
develop learning objectives. Analyse
training alternatives to determine the most
cost-effective approach.
4. Ensure collaboration on the training
design between professional training staff
and line personnel.
Case Study –
5. Set a tangible value for the training
investment before training begins.
Identify how much improvement in
customer satisfaction is to be
expected for training to be judged
successful.
6. Determine whether this training is
justified. If not, return to step 3.
7. Evaluate changes in customer
satisfaction as a measure of the
training’s effectiveness.
Case Study –
In the mid-1990s British Airways recognised
that it faced new and different challenges.
Even though excellent customer service
remained a competitive advantage, significant
changes occurred in the air travel industry. For
improvement to continue, British Airways
needed to reinvent itself once again. With the
input from a cross-section of employees,
management redefined the mission, goals and
values to address: global economics,
increasing competition, employee satisfaction
and continued improvements in customer
satisfaction.
Case Study –
The restated mission, values and goals
are as follows:
Mission:
To be the undisputed leader in world
travel.
Values:
Safe and secure, honest and
responsible, innovative and team
spirited, global and caring, a good
neighbour.
Case Study –
Goals:
Customers’ choice – become the
airline of first choice in key markets.
Strong profitability – meeting investors’
expectations and securing the future.
Truly global – global network and
outlook: recognised everywhere for
superior value in world travel.
Inspired people – building on success
and delighting people.
Case Study –
British Airways is one of the most profitable
airlines in the world, reporting a £640 million
profit for the year ending 1997. That same year
they announced a £6 billion, three-year
programme to improve aircraft, products,
facilities and training for employees. Their
success in the area of customer preference and
satisfaction is, in part, evidenced by the
numerous awards received from industry travel
publications. British Airways’ approach to human
resources development dramatically improved its
bottom line by establishing BA as a leader in
customer service, creating a worldwide image as
the preferred international airline.
LEARNING AND TRAINING

Learning
Learning has been probed and
prodded by scientific inquiry since the
late 1800s. The resulting theories led
to practical application in both
educational and industrial settings. The
range of theoretical perspectives varied
widely over the last century. We
examine the essential elements of
learning theories and identify their
relationship to training.
What is Learning?
To understand the differences among
learning theories, it helps to understand the
difficulties of simply defining the concept of
learning. Learning is not directly
observable, but it is something that almost
everyone says they experience. People
can “feel” that they learned. Scientists
assure us that it occurs physically, yet they
are not sure how. It is clear from
physiological evidence that learning is
related to changes in the physical, neuronal
structure of the brain and its related
electrochemical functioning.
What is Learning? …Contd.
Unfortunately, much is still unknown
about how or why these electrochemical
changes take place. Learning, of course,
is closely tied to memory: Whatever is
learned must be retained if it is to be
useful. Electrochemical changes created
during learning apparently create a
relatively permanent change in neural
functioning that becomes what is
commonly termed memory. Again,
relatively few definitive answers exist
about how or where learning is stored in
the central nervous system.
Two Definitions of Learning
If we cannot actually observe learning
occurring, then how do we know that
learning occurred? We must use
something influenced by learning that we
can observe. That is, we must infer that
learning occurred by looking at its
observable effects. What things, influenced
by learning, can we observe? The answer
is that we are pretty much limited to
observing the learner’s behaviour. For
instance, in school you are often given
tests to determine whether you learned.
The behaviour being observed is the way
you answer the questions.
Two Definitions of Learning …Contd.
In the workplace, your supervisor might
look for ways you perform your job
differently after training. In science,
concepts, events and phenomena are
given an operational definition, which
means that the concept is defined in terms
of how it is measured. Because learning is
measured in terms of relatively permanent
changes in behaviour, this becomes the
operational definition of learning for many
theorists. Behaviourists in particular adopt
this definition.
Cognitive theorists on the other hand,
insist that even though learning can be
inferred from behaviour, it is separate
from the behaviour itself. By examining
the ways in which people respond to
information and the ways in which
different types of behaviour are grouped
or separated, they developed theories of
how information is learned. For cognitive
theorists, learning represents a change in
the content, organisation and storage of
information.
The term used to refer to the mental
processing of information is cognition.
For cognitive theorists, learning is
defined as a relatively permanent
change in cognition occurring as a result
of experience. These theorists discuss
learning in terms of mental
infrastructures or schema rather than in
terms of behaviour. Learning is seen as
the building and reorganisation of
schema to make sense of new
information.
Some Training Implications
of Cognitive and Behaviourist
Learning Theory
Issue Cognitive Behaviourist
Approach Approach
Learner’s role Active, self- Passive,
directed, self- dependent
evaluating
Instructor’s Facilitator, Director,
role coordinator and monitor,
presenter evaluator
Training Problem or task Subject oriented
content oriented
Learner More internally More externally
motivation motivated motivated
Some Training Implications
of Cognitive and Behaviourist
Learning Theory …Contd.
Issue Cognitive Behaviourist
Approach Approach
Training Relaxed, mutually Formal, authority
climate trustful and oriented,
respectful, judgemental,
collaborative competitive
Instructional Collaboratively Developed by
goals developed instructor
Instructional Interactive, group, Directive,
activities project oriented, individual, subject
experiential oriented

Principles of Learning
1. Learning is enhanced when the
learner is motivated.
2. Learning requires feedback.
3. Reinforcement increases the
likelihood that a learned behaviour will
be repeated.
4. Practice increases a learner’s
performance.
5. Learning begins rapidly, then
plateaus.
6. Learning must be transferable to the
job.
145
Principles of Learning …Contd.
Learning principles are the guidelines to
the ways in which people learn most
effectively. The more these principles are
reflected in training, the more effective
training is likely to be.
These principles are:
1. Participation
2. Repetition
3. Relevance
4. Transference
5. Feedback.
2
Paper

Unit – II: Training Need Analysis
Sub Topics
o Process and Approaches of Training Need
Analysis
o Issues Affecting Training Need Analysis
o Training Need Analysis and Training
Process Design

Analysing Training Needs
The key task is to identify the training and
development needs of a job or job-group. Only
then can we consider how best these can be met.
Training is not an end in itself; it’s only purpose
is as a means of improving performance. It,
therefore, follows that in analysing training
needs, our concentration should be first on the
job or job-group and what it requires and
second on the job-holder and how he is able to
meet these requirements.

Analysing Training Needs …Contd.
There are three basic levels of approach:
(a) the Company
(b) the Department and
(c) the Individual
Training and Development could be useful
aids in improving the transformation
process that takes place in an organization
in terms of the processing of inputs to
outputs.

Training needs have to be related both in
terms of the organization’s demands and
that of the individual’s. Diversification
of product lines, new technology and
hence, new kinds of jobs demand the
individual’s growth and development
through induction training or training
necessitated by job rotation due to an
organization’s internal mobility policies.

Many methods have been proposed for
identifying training needs, the important
ones being:
1. Views of the line manager
2. Performance appraisal
3. Company and departmental
plans
4. Views of training manager
5. Analysis of job difficulties

Discussions with the trainees should form an
integral part of this analysis. In some instances,
one might discover that the trainee has a basic
lack of confidence in his / her own ability to do
the job. Training, may therefore, be required not
so much to teach him how to do the job as to
assure him that he does know how. Conversely,
a jobholder may not recognize that he is not
coping effectively with his present job and
therefore, be resentful of the idea of training.

Some managers are tempted to
overcome this by selling training as
a reward. The danger here is that
the trainee may then choose to
regard the training as a holiday,
deriving little benefit himself and
interfering with the learning of the
participants.
Pre-Training Analysis
I. Data Collection Relating to:
1. Company
2. Management
3. Human resource profile
4. Technology
5. Positioning
6. Goal setting
7. Job standards
8. Performance standards
9. Communication, etc.

Pre-Training Analysis …Contd.
II. Interviews of Key
Personnel:
1. Directors
2. Managers
3. Some supervisors
4. Senior workers
5. Union leaders, etc.

Training Philosophy Development by
Determining Training Needs in Terms of :
1. Attitudinal and behavioural
requirements
2. Skill requirement
3. Knowledge requirements
4. Problem areas
5. Priorities
6. Major emphasis areas (subject matter,
level, etc.)

Defining Training Objectives and Plans
Along with Budgets:
Preparing Training and Development
(Learning and Development) Plan for short,
medium and long – term objectives with
cost-benefit (not necessarily financial)
analysis, if possible.
Answering Questions Like:
A.What ? B. For Whom? C.By Whom?
D. How? E. Where? F. When?

Specific Programme Development
(Training Module Preparation)
1. Subject wise
2. Level wise
3. Function wise
4. Methodology / Treatment of subject
Conducting the Programmes
A.Faculty
B.Training materials, aids, etc.
C. Administrative arrangements
Evaluation
1. Immediate
2. After transference of learning
( intermediate / long term )
Will be Done by
1. Written or Oral feedback
2. Analysis of comments, suggestions,
observations
3. Inferences
Use of Evaluation Data
3
Paper
Unit – III:
Training Design and Evaluation
Sub Topics
o Understanding & Developing the Objectives
of Training
o Facilitation of Training: Trainee, Training
Design and Organisation Interventions
o Training Methods
o Implementation and Evaluation of Training
Programme
Understanding and
Developing
the Objectives of
Training

Analysing Training Needs
The key task is to identify the training and
development needs of a job or job-group. Only
then can we consider how best these can be met.
Training is not an end in itself; it’s only purpose
is as a means of improving performance. It,
therefore, follows that in analysing training
needs, our concentration should be first on the
job or job-group and what it requires and second
on the job-holder and how he is able to meet
these requirements.

There are three basic levels of approach:
(a) the Company
(b) the Department and
(c) the Individual
Training and Development could be
useful aids in improving the
transformation process that takes place
in an organisation in terms of the
processing of inputs to outputs.
Training needs have to be related both in
terms of the organisation’s demands and
that of the individual’s. Diversification
of product lines, new technology and
hence, new kinds of jobs demand the
individual’s growth and development
through induction training or training
necessitated by job rotation due to an
organisation’s internal mobility policies.

Many methods have been proposed for
identifying training needs, the important
ones being:
1. Views of the line manager
2. Performance appraisal
3. Company and departmental
plans
4. Views of training manager
5. Analysis of job difficulties

Discussions with the trainees should form an
integral part of this analysis. In some instances,
one might discover that the trainee has a basic
lack of confidence in his / her own ability to do
the job. Training, may therefore, be required not
so much to teach him how to do the job as to
assure him that he does know how. Conversely, a
jobholder may not recognise that he is not coping
effectively with his present job and therefore, be
resentful of the idea of training.

Some managers are tempted to
overcome this by selling training as
a reward. The danger here is that the
trainee may then choose to regard
the training as a holiday, deriving
little benefit himself and interfering
with the learning of the participants.

Facilitation of
Training: Trainee,
Training Design and
Organisation
Interventions
Training Programme
Design
A training programme is a summary of the
training required to enable an employee to
perform a particular job to the required
standard. This involves the following:
1. Identifying Learning Objectives
2. Specifying the Sequence
3. Choosing the Learning Methods
4. Choosing the Location
5. Choosing the Instructor
6. Drawing up the Programme

Identifying Learning Objectives
A learning objective is a statement
of what the trainee will be able to
do, to what standard and in what
circumstances, at the end of the
programme. The content of the
programme will be determined by
the number and type of learning
objectives that it is designed to meet.

Specifying the Sequence
The learner will need to
build from the known to
the unknown for learning
to take place effectively.

Choosing the Learning Methods
There are a variety of learning methods
available and the method to be used
must be dictated by the learning
objectives. The important thing in
choosing a method is to recognize the
nature of the learning that is desired to
take place and to select a method which
will facilitate that.

Choosing the Location
The learning objectives and
the learning method will,
between them, dictate where
the training should take
place.

Choosing the Instructor
The only real consideration
here should be the
competence of the persons in
question in using the chosen
learning method to reach the
required learning objectives.

Drawing up the Programme
The final stage is to bring together the
what, when, how, where and who and
place them on paper as a training
programme. But writing the
programme down is only the
beginning. Unless, you can actually
put it into operation to satisfy the
training needs, it will be worthless.

In-Company Training
and Development …Contd.
Specific Programme
Development / Training
Module Preparation
1. Subject wise
2. Level wise
3. Function wise
In-Company Training
and Development …Contd.
Evaluation
1. Immediate
2. After transfer of learning
Can be Done by
observations
3. Inferences

Training
Methods
Training Methods
Training methods are a means of attaining the
desired objectives in a learning situation. The
choice of a particular method would depend on a
wide variety of factors, such as competence of
instructors, relevance to the participants, the
programme design, etc. i.e., is a particular method
the best vehicle to put across the contents and
finally, its cost implications. In using a particular
method in a given situation, one should know its
strengths and weaknesses, its relevance, its purpose
and if it is found useful, how to get the most out of
its.

Training Methods …Contd.
This would provide the rationale of the
various training methods. The trainer should
know the rationale of each of the methods
before attempting to use any of them.
Depending on the learning outcome and the
process by which it is attained, the training
methods are classified as:
1. On-the-Job Oriented Methods
2. Simulation Methods
3. Knowledge Based Methods
4. Experiential Methods

On-the-Job Oriented Methods
The objectives here are centred around the
job itself or more specifically, learning on
the job itself by a variety of methods like:
1. On-the-job training
2. Job Rotation
3. Guidance and Counseling
4. Brain Storming
5. Syndicate method or working in small
groups

Simulation Methods
Real life situations are simulated for
importing training. The main methods
in this category are:
1. Role-play
2. Case method
3. Management games
4. In-basket exercise

Knowledge Based Methods
An effort is made to expose participants to concepts and
theories, basic principles and pure and applied knowledge
in any subject area aimed at creating awareness of the
knowledge of fundamentals. The methods in this category
are:
1. Lecture
2. Seminars, Workshops
3. Educational training programmes at academic
institutes
4. Programmed instruction in which knowledge is
disseminated in book form to be learnt at the
individual’s pace
5. Films and Television
6. Group discussions in combination
Experiential Methods
The forms in this category is on
achieving a better understanding of
oneself and others through group
processes and dynamics. Some such
methods are:
1. Sensitivity Training or T Groups
2. Transactional Analysis
3. Achievement Motivation
Workshops, etc.

Training Methods …Contd.
It should be realised that each method
has some strengths and weaknesses.
Given the nature and purpose of a
training programme, the background
of the participants, the availability and
competence of trainers, the
appropriate method has to be chosen
to impart training.

On-the-Job Training
Definition
Employee training at the place of work while he or
she is doing the actual job. Usually
a professional trainer (or sometimes an
experienced employee) serves as the course
instructor, and employs
the principles of learning (participation, repetition,
relevance, transference, and feedback) often
supported by formal classroom training.

On-the-Job Training …Contd.
Strengths

On-the-Job Training …Contd.
Weaknesses

Job Rotation
Definition
Job rotation involves moving an
employee through a series of jobs so he
or she can get a good feel for the tasks
that are associated with different jobs. It
is usually used in training for
supervisory positions. The employee
learns a little about everything. This is a
good strategy for small businesses
because of the many jobs an employee
may be asked to do.
Job Rotation …Contd.
Strengths
Practically performing
Proper Guidence by your supervisor
while doing the task
Doudbt could be cleared

Job Rotation …Contd.
Weaknesses
Theorytical knowlegde will be less
while propering the task you will come to
know the process
Long Process and time consuming

Guidance and Counselling
Definition

Guidance and Couselling …Contd.
Strengths

Guidance and Counselling …Contd.
Weaknesses

Brain Storming
Definition
Brainstorming is a process for generating new
ideas
Brainstorming is "a conference technique by

which a group attempts to find a solution for a
specific problem by amassing all the ideas
spontaneously by its members" - Alex Osborn
To brainstorm is to use a set of specific rules and

techniques which encourage and spark off new
ideas which would never have happened under
Brain Storming …Contd.
Strengths

Brain Storming …Contd.
Weaknesses

Syndicate Method
Definition
Working in a small group to achieve a
particular purpose is described as a syndicate
method. The essence of the syndicate method is
that participants learn from each other and
contribute their own experiences to the fullest.
The syndicate method is designed to provide
the participant an environment that would help
him:
1. To reflect critically on his own work and
experience

Syndicate Method …Contd.
Definition …Contd.
2. To update his knowledge of new
concepts and techniques with the help of
other co-participants
3. To develop sound judgement through
greater insight into human behaviour.
This method is suitable for training and
development of executives with considerable
experience. It is not so useful in the case of
management students without any experience.

Mechanics of the Method:
1. The participants are divided into group
consisting of about ten participants. These
groups are called “Syndicates.”
2. Each Syndicate functions as a team that can
represent various functional as well as interest
areas. On the one hand, it has representatives
from a wide cross-section of organisations like
private sector undertakings, public sector,
banking, civil service etc. and on the other it is
a balanced management team with men from
functional areas such as Marketing, Personnel,
Production Management, etc.

Mechanics of the Method: …Contd.
3. The Syndicate are given assignments which
have to be finished and a report submitted by a
specified date and time. There are also in-built
pressures under which groups have to work.
4. By rotation each member of the syndicate
becomes the leader (Chairman), for completing
a specific task or an assignment. Each member
also gets a turn to be the secretary to the group.
He generally assists the Chairman in preparation
of the report.

5. Each assignment to a Syndicate is given in the
form of a “Brief”. This is a carefully prepared
document by the faculty.
6. Each Syndicate is placed under a member of the
Directing staff who acts as a resource person rather
than as a lecturer. He develops a friendly
relationship with the member of the Syndicate and
gives them advice and guidance without giving his
own answers for the task assigned. He watches the
development of each member and ensures that
everyone gets a fair opportunity to play his role
effectively.

7. Generally, each Syndicate is required
to submit a report which is circulated
to other Syndicates for critical
evaluation.
8. The Chairman of each Syndicate is
required to present the view of his
team on the task assigned to them at a
joint session of all the groups.

Strengths
The Syndicate methods has the following
advantages:
1. It secures a very high level of involvement
from the participants. There is friendliness as
well as healthy competition within each
Syndicate as also amongst syndicates.
2. For the practising managers, their own
experience is the starting point in the Syndicate
method. Through various work assignments,
the participants can assimilate new concepts,
techniques and information more easily. Thus,
it is a process of self-education and
development for participants.
Strengths …Contd.
3. The availability of the Directing staff and outside
experts can stimulate critical thinking on the part
of the participants and enable them to bring out
their best.
4. The Syndicate method also gives the participant a
practice in communicating with his colleagues and
understanding them. It provides an environment far
away from his daily working situation and thus
free from the pressures and biases. In such an
environment, the participant can understand the
value of specialists in other areas and appreciate
them. This will help them in relating to peers when
they return back to their companies.

Strengths …Contd.
5. Working in Syndicates involves
interaction over an extended period of
time and living together with a large
cross section of people from different
types of organisations with varied
functional interests. This results in a
broad-minded realistic approach to
managerial as well as national
problems.
Weaknesses
1. The role of the directing staff is quite
crucial and neglect by them can
convert the Syndicate method to an
exercise in futility.
2. If the Syndicate is not structured
properly, it could lead to a lot of
waste of time and cause frustration.

Weaknesses
3. In the absence of proper pressure on
the participants by trainers or
participants themselves, some
participants might start dragging their
feet.
4. Differences of opinion or view-point
may be ignored to avoid friction.

Role-play
Definition
Creating a realistic situation and having
trainees assume parts of specific
personalities in the situation. Their
actions are based on the roles assigned
to them. Emphasis is not on problem
solving but rather on skill development.

Role-play …Contd.
Strengths
Good if the situation is similar to the
actual work situation. Trainees receive
feedback that gives them confidence.
Good for interpersonal skills. Teaches
individuals how to act in real situations.

Role-play …Contd.
Weaknesses
Trainees are not actors. Trainees
sometimes are not serious. Some
situations cannot be implemented in role
playing. Uncontrolled role playing may
not lead to any sufficient results. If it is
very similar to actual life, it may product
adverse reactions.

Case Method
Definition
A written narrative description of a real
situation, issue, or incident that a
manager faced in a particular
organisation. Trainees are required to
propose a suitable solution or make on
appropriate decision.

Case Method …Contd.
Strengths
Cases are usually very interesting. Much group
discussion and interaction about many
solutions, since there is no absolute solution.
Develops trainees’ abilities in effective
communication and active participation.
Develops trainees’ ability to figure various
factors that influence their decision building.
Develops trainees’ ability to make proper
decisions in real-life situations (transfer of
learning).

Case Method …Contd.
Weaknesses
A slow method of training. Often
difficult to select the appropriate case
study for specific training situation.
Requires high level of skills by both
trainees and trainer, as the discussion can
become boring. Can create frustration on
part of trainees, especially if they fall to
arrive at a specific solution.

Management Games
Definition
Giving the trainees information about
the organisation and its environment,
then dividing into teams. Each team is
required to make an operational
decision and then evaluate its decision.

Management Games …Contd.
Strengths
Develops practical experience for the
trainees. Helps in transferring knowledge
and in applying administrative thoughts.
Helps to evoluate and correct the
trainees’ behaviour.

Management Games …Contd.
Weaknesses
Often, it is difficult to study the results
of each team’s decision. Some teams
may not take it seriously. May be a
slow process.

In-basket Exercise
Definition
Creates the same type of situations
trainees face in daily work. Trainees
observed on how they arrange the
situations and their actions regarding
them. Trainees evaluated on the basis of
the number and quality of decisions.
Used for MD and assessment centres.

In-basket Exercise …Contd.
Strengths
Effective for corrective action or
reinforcement. Widely used in
assessment centres for measuring
supervisory potential.

In-basket Exercise …Contd.
Weaknesses
Tendency to be or become overly
simplistic.

Lectures
Definition
A speech by the instructor, with very
limited discussions.

Lectures …Contd.
Strengths
Clear and direct methods of
presentation. Good if there are more
than 20 trainees. Materials can be
provided to trainees in advance to help
in their preparation. Trainer has control
over time. Cost effective (cheap).

Lectures …Contd.
Weaknesses
Since there is no discussion it is easy to
forget. Sometimes it is not effective.
Requires a high level of speaking ability.
Requires a high level of quick
understanding by trainess.

Seminars, Workshops
Definition
A small group of advanced students in a college or
graduate school engaged in original research or
intensive study under the guidance of a professor
who meets regularly with them to discuss their
reports and findings.
A course of study so pursued.
A scheduled meeting of such a group.
A meeting for an exchange of ideas; a conference.

Seminars, Workshops …Contd.
Strengths

Seminars, Workshops …Contd.
Weaknesses

Educational Training Programmes
Definition

Educational Training
Programmes …Contd.
Strengths

Educational Training
Programmes …Contd.
Weaknesses

Programmed Instruction
Definition
Programmed learning or Programmed
Instruction is one of the innovations in
teaching technology developed in recent years.
The material to be learned is prepared in such
a way that it can be presented to the learner in
a series of sequential steps. These steps
progress from simple to more complex levels
of instruction. The information to be taught is
presented in a form known as a
PROGRAMME.

Programmed Instruction …Contd.
Definition …Contd.
The person who writes the programme is
called the PROGRAMME WRITER or
PROGRAMMER and the people for whom the
programme is written are referred to as the
TARGET POPULATION. Programmes are
generally presented in the form of a book.
“HOW TO READ A BALANCE SHEET”
brought out by ILO is an excellent example of
Programmed Instruction.

The biggest advantage of this method is that
the learning takes place at the student’s own
pace. He proceeds from frame to frame. If
his response is correct, he immediately gets
information indicating that his response was
correct and he can proceed to the next step.
If his response is incorrect, he is instructed
to restudy the material or he is told why his
response was wrong.

It is thus possible to guide the progress
of a student in an orderly manner just as
a tutor would do. But, the biggest
disadvantage of this method is the
absence of a teacher. The book becomes
the teacher. Hence, it is absolutely
essential that the trainee is highly
motivated to continue learning.

There are three forms of Programmed
Learning:
1. Linear Programming: In this
method, which was developed by
Dr. B.F. Skinner, the student works
through all the sequences of a book
in a straight path from the first page
to the last. He is given feedback at
every step.

2. Intrinsic (or branching)
Programming: This form developed by
Dr. Crowder makes the student work
through the programme by one of
several “paths” or “branches” according
to the responses he chooses. Since the
student’s choice of reply determines
which path of learning he would take
through the programme, this form of
programming is known as “Intrinsic.”

Features of P.I.
3. Adaptive Programming: Developed by
Gordon Pask, these programmes can only
be presented in machines which “adapt” to
the trainees. This form makes allowance
for more variations in student ability.
1. The student works his way through a
course by a series of small steps.
2. He actively responds by answering
questions on solving problems.

3. The correctness of his response is
immediately established. It is an accepted
fact that learning is the highest where
feedback is quickest. One of the
disadvantages of the modern training
systems is that the student does not get a
quick feedback. On this ground this is an
effective method. Where necessary, he is
also provided with additional information to
correct his answer.
4. The learner works toward predefined goals.

Differences Between PI and
Other Instructional Methods
1. It is self-instructional. Other methods depend
greatly on a teacher or a facilitator.
2. The subject matter is carefully analysed and
each unit is designed to meet specified
objectives.
3. Trainees are required to take part actively and
receive immediate feedback. In most other
methods, it is difficult to give immediate
feedback to students.
4. Programmes are thoroughly tested and proved
to teach what they are intended to teach. This
avoids problems associated with inexperienced
and inadequate teachers.

Strengths
The use of P.I. should be considered for knowledge
inputs as it has the following two major advantages:
1. Efficiency – Administrative simplicity and
increased productivity in training result in lower
training cost per student. An individual may
receive instruction at anytime. He does not have
to wait till a class is scheduled or till the class is
filled up. P.I. can be used to provide prerequisites
for a later classroom opportunity. Research shows
that learning by P.I. results in longer retention
than conventional classroom teaching.

Strengths …Contd.
2. Effectiveness – Through P.I. it is
possible to improve the quality and
effectiveness of learning. Since the
objectives are laid down for the
programme, it is more likely that the
student will learn what he is
supposed to learn in each course.

Strengths …Contd.
In a country which is geographically very vast
and where educational infrastructure leaves a
vast majority from its reach, this system needs
more and more encouragement. While
standard materials are available from sources
like ILO, each trainer can write brief
programmes for use in specific subjects. This
is most effective method when teaching has to
be done through post.

Films and Television
Definition
Recording and producing certain events
or situations with clear descriptions in
order to cover certain subjects. Can be
shown many times, then reviewed and
discussed to help trainees understand
more fully.

Films and Television …Contd.
Strengths
Tapes can be played many times to
ensure individual’s understanding.
Many events and discussions can be put
on one tape. Because time length is
known, presentation and follow-up can
be scheduled.

Films and Television …Contd.
Weaknesses
Recording and producing has to be done
by professionals to get good quality.
Expensive (a typical 20 to 30 minutes
cassette costs $50, without projector or
screen).

Group Discussion
Definition
A speech by the instructor, with a lot of
participation (questions and comments)
from the listeners. Sometimes an
instructor not necessary, however, a
leader is needed.

Group Discussion …Contd.
Strengths
Good if the participants are in small
groups. Each participant has an
opportunity to present own ideas. More
ideas can be generated.

Group Discussion …Contd.
Weaknesses
Sometimes they get away from the
subjects. Some group leaders or
instructors do not know how to guide
discussions. Sometimes one strong
individual can dominate others.

Sensitivity Training
Definition
Used for organisational development.
Creating situations and examining the
participants’ reactions and behaviour,
then having feedback about behaviour.
Group members exchange thoughts and
feelings in unstructured ways.

Sensitivity Training …Contd.
Strengths
Helps individuals to find the reasons for
their behaviour (self-insight). Helps
individuals to know the effects of their
behaviour on others. Creates more group
interactions.

Sensitivity Training …Contd.
Weaknesses
People may not like information about
their behaviour, especially if it is
negative. May lead to conflict and anger
within the group. May not be related or
transferable to jobs.

Transactional Analysis –
An Overview
Transactional Analysis (T.A. for short) has
gained immense popularity in recent years and is
claimed to have been the next best thing to
happen in the field of Psychology and
Psychotherapy after Freud. The concept of T.A.
was first pro-pounded by Dr. Eric Berne, M.D.,
in the early 50s. Berne was much impressed by
the works of Adler and Sullivan and was apt to
differ from Freud in considering sexual
motivation to be the sole determinant of all
human behaviour.
An Overview …Contd.
Berne noticed that an individual depending upon
various stimuli tended to behave as if more than
one person was inside the individual. He observed
that these various ‘selves’ interacted with other
people in different ways and that these interactions
were amenable to an analysis of sorts. T.A. was
initially developed by Berne as a
Psychotherapeutic tool but gradually it became
clear that it provided an excellent method for
understanding the whole gamut of human
behaviour, ‘pathological’ as well as ‘normal’.

An Overview …Contd.
Basically, T.A. consists of the following
four kinds of analysis:
1. Structural Analysis
2. Transactional Analysis
3. Game Analysis and
4. Script Analysis
Let us see in brief what these four analyses
are all about and how T.A. is useful in
understanding and improving human
behaviour.
Structural Analysis
Man at any particular time is said to be
having three Ego States. The Ego States
are separate and distinct sources of
behaviour. They, according to Berne are
not abstract concepts but realities and
should not be equated with the Freudian
concepts of Id, Ego and Super Ego.

Structural Analysis …Contd.
These Ego States are the Parent Ego
State, the Adult Ego State and the Child
Ego State and are commonly called
Parent, Adult and Child and are
represented by Capital Letters P, A and
C respectively.
The Ego States can be diagrammatically
represented as in the next slide by what
is called an Ego gram.
Parent
P Ego State
Adult
A Ego State
Child
C Ego State

Let us see what these three Ego States involve:
1. Parent Ego State:
This contains the ‘recordings’ of a person’s early
years (usually the first five years) of life. Everything a
child sees his parents do or tell is imbibed here. Since
a child is dependent and rigorously follows whatever
is told to him by his parents or parent substitutes, the
data recorded here is in an unmodified form. In the
Parent are recorded all the rules, laws, the don’ts as
also the rewards and looks of pleasure given by the
parents of the child.

1. Parent Ego State …Contd.
Thus, an individual’s father and mother become
internalized in a person’s psyche and they
continue to influence him / her throughout his
life. This Ego State is inwardly experienced as
archaic parental dictions while externally it may
be manifested as a nurturing or critical
behaviour. The Parent Ego State is hence sub-
divided into :
1. Nurturing Parent
2. Critical Parent.
2. The Child Ego State:
During the same time (birth to five years) when
the external events are being recorded in the
Parent, the internal feelings of the child are
recorded in the Child Ego State. Since the Child
has yet to develop his analytical ability and
hence the recordings consist almost entirely of
‘feelings’ which are a direct consequence of his
reactions to the various environmental demands
put upon him / her.

2. The Child Ego State …Contd.
In a child there exists the various natural urges like the
urge to explore, to experience pleasant sensations, to
make bowel movements, etc. However, these urges are
regulated by the environmental demands
predominantly in the form of parental approval /
disapproval. In the child also resides the curiosity, a
desire to explore, to have newer and newer
experiences. The Child Ego State is hence sub-divided
primarily into two divisions viz.,
1. The Free Child and
2. The Adapted Child.

2. The Child Ego State …Contd.
The Free Child has all the positive urges stored
in him / her while the Adapted Child is one
which learns to behave intuitively by
observing and suitably adapting its behaviour
according to environmental / parental
reinforcements.
The Adapted Child is in turn divisible into two
parts:
1. The Rebellious Child
2. The Complaint Child.

3. The Adult Ego State:
This is the state which is geared to the present
reality. It gathers information, organizes it; tests the
information gathered, analyzes it and takes
decisions. Studies tend to point out that from the
tenth month onwards, the Adult begins to
differentiate. The Adult is continuously testing and
updating data, sometimes even Parent and Child
data. The Adult, hence, is often likened to a
computer and almost functions like one. The Adult
is associated with all the rational decisions taken by
man.
Nurturing Critical
Parent Parent Parent
Adult
Adapted Child
Rebellous Child
Natural Child
Child
Compliant Child
The boundaries between Parent, Adult
and Child are not very strong and are
vulnerable to the bombardment of
incoming data. One Ego State may get
blocked out from another Ego State and
even contamination of one Ego State
and another is possible.

Transactional Analysis
According to Berne, a transaction is the basic
unit of social interaction. Whenever two
persons come together they transact. The
transaction consists of a stimulus by one person
and a response by another. As we know each
person has three ego states and hence when two
persons transact, actually six ego states become
involved. Depending upon the Ego States that
are activated, transactions have been classified
as Complementary, Crossed or Ulterior.

Transactional Analysis …Contd.
Complementary Transactions
A complementary transaction occurs when a
message sent from a particular ego state gets the
predicted response from a specific ego state in
the other person. Complementary transactions
are natural and expected, and so they usually
lead to healthy relationships. A complementary
transaction can occur between any two ego
states, e.g., it could be Parent-Parent, Adult-
Adult, Parent-Child etc.

Complementary Transactions …Contd.
Complementary transactions are open-
ended. Theoretically, the two persons
can continue to transact with each other
almost indefinitely. Examples of
complementary transactions are
illustrated in the next slide.

P P
A A
C C
1 2
Adult – Adult Transaction
1. Where are you going ?
2. I am going to my office.
P P
A A
C C
1 2
Child - Nurturing Parent Transaction
1. I am just not able to solve these problems.
2. I shall help you out with them.
Crossed Transactions:
Often, it so happens that a stimulus does not
receive the intended response and as a result,
the communication process gets crossed. In a
crossed transaction, the appropriate ego state
is not activated and the transacting lines
between the people become crossed. At this
stage, communication usually comes to a
halt. People tend to withdraw or else choose
a new topic.

Crossed Transactions …Contd.
Crossed transactions may lead to
misunderstanding and pain as may be
evident from the illustration given in the
next slide.

Crossed Transactions …Contd.
P P
A A
1
C 2 C
Typist Boss
1. Typist: Here is the report.
2. Boss: You should have typed it out at
least two hours back.
Ulterior Transactions
Ulterior transactions differ from
complementary or crossed transactions
since ulterior transactions involve more
than one ego states. Ulterior transactions
usually have a covert massage which is
disguised in the form of a socially
acceptable transaction. Ulterior
transactions are represented in the diagrams
in the broken line form.
Ulterior Transactions …Contd.
Ulterior transactions are of two types :
1. Angular
2. Duplex.
In case of Duplex transactions, persons
transact at two distinct levels viz. the
underlying covert, psychological level and the
overt, social level.
Examples of Angular and Duplex Ulterior
transactions are given in the next two slides.

Angular Transaction
X 1: I really blew my top today,
no ? (overt communication
of information)
P 1a P X 1a: (An attempt actually to
hook up the parent). If the
A 1 A angular transaction is
successful, then the parent
C 2 C may be hooked and
response may be:
X Y Y 2: You are unmanageable.

Duplex
Student 1: I worked at night
Transaction but don’t have the
homework ready
1a: (Ulterior: I am bad, punish
P 1a P
me).
1
Teacher 2: Sorry, this is the last
A A day for the assignment. You
2 shall not be marked for it.
C 2a C 2a: (Ulterior: Yes, you are bad.
Here is your punishment).
X Y

Game Analysis
People often tend to play psychological games
with one another. The psychological games have
a beginning, a set of rules and end in a ‘pay off’.
These games are not played merely for the sake
of fun and may have ulterior motives. Berne
stated that a psychological game has “a recurring
set of transactions, often repetitive, superficially
rational, with a concealed motivation; or more
colloquially as a series of transactions with a
gimmick”.

Game Analysis …Contd.
Games usually have (I) a series of
complementary transactions which are
meaningful at the social level (ii) an ulterior
transaction which is the underlying message
(iii) a pay off which is the conclusion and the
reason why game is played.
Games are wasteful and do not encourage
honest, intimate relationships amongst the
participants. People often play games to kill
time, to get attention or to prove early
prejudices.

In T.A. terminology games have
Slogans or Motto by which they can be
easily recognized, the slogan of the
game is often called a ‘sweat shirt’ and
the name of the game may be taken
from the slogan of the game. One such
game is called ‘Uproar’ and may
proceed somewhat like this:

When X is starting the game, the interactions
may be:
X: Begins to make signs of being disturbed.
Y: What’s wrong:
X: ‘It’s none of your business, leave me alone’.
Y: May go out without a word.
X: When Y returns, there is a show-down and each
party accuses the other, the pay off may be in the
form of X breaking down, running to a room and
slamming the door shut. Y may retreat elsewhere.
The whole day may then be spent without any
further contact.
Games are played with different degrees of
intensity ranging from the socially acceptable to
the criminal homicide or suicide level. Berne
divided games into three types:
(a) First Degree Game

This is one which is socially
acceptable.
(b) Second Degree Game
This does not involve any permanent
damage but the players tend to conceal it from
public.
(c) Third Degree Game
This is played for ‘keeps’,
ending in some permanent
change. The end is either at the
courtroom or the morgue.

Script Analysis
Each person has a life plan, these life plans
are called scripts in T.A. language. A person
usually feels compelled to play out the life
plan. This life plan is usually based on
childlike illusions which seem to persist
throughout the life time. A script is related to
the early ‘life positions’ taken by a child and
is present in the Child Ego State. The
inscription takes place through the
transactions between parents and their
children.
Script Analysis …Contd.
The childlike illusions which go to make the
script is often removed by certain intelligent
people; however, the removal involves a bit of
a crisis. Such a crisis may be an adolescent
reappraisal of parents, middle age protests and
emergence of a philosophical self in later
years. Sometimes, however, attempts to
maintain the illusions may lead to depression
or a complete abandonment of the illusions
and despair.

A life script can be likened to a theatrical script,
wherein the actor is compelled to act as per the
script. The life script scenes are also set up and
motivated ahead of time just like theatrical
scripts. A life script requires the following:
1. Parental directives
2. A suitable personality development
3. A childhood decision
4. An attuning to a particular method of
success or failure
5. A credible stance

A life script starts early in childhood where other
players are limited to parents and siblings. Through
the trial and error methods, the child writes and
rewrites the final script. The script is ultimately
aimed at the last performance, the final pay off. If
the script is ‘good’, he might get kudos, if it is
‘bad’, he might end up in a prison cell, on the
gallows or a lunatic asylum.
Life scripts are based on parental programming; a
child seeks it out because it gives him a purpose of
life, a method for structuring time and learning how
to do things.

Usually life scripts are of three types:
1. Winner script
2. The non-winner scripts and
3. The loser script
While a child may be free to choose the kind of
script he wants, the outcome is based on parental
directives. Parents may want their children to be
losers or winners; a winner is a person who
fulfills the agreement with the world and
himself, while losers are those who do not
accomplish the goal. There are also those
persons who are not losers but are non-winners.

Scripts, like games are artificial systems and
are liable to limit creative human
endeavours. Also scripts are not restricted to
individuals only; cultural, sub-cultural and
family scripts also exist. However, once the
predominant games one plays or the script
one has is recognized, desirable changes can
be effected. Intelligent people can determine
their own course of life although the process
may not always be an easy one and may
involve much hard work.

Life Positions
People, very early in life develop certain
life positions. These life positions can be
grouped under the following four
categories:
1. I am Not OK – You are OK

2. I am Not OK – You are Not OK
3. I am OK – You are Not OK
4. I am OK – You are OK

Life Positions …Contd.
Usually I am Not OK: You are OK is
the first decision early in life; by the end
of second year, this is either confirmed
or position two or three is adopted.
These life positions remain with a
person for the rest of his / her life unless
(s)he consciously changes it to the
fourth position.

1. I am Not OK – You are OK
This is the position taken by everyone in early
childhood. In this position, a person feels that
he is at the mercy of others and there is an
overwhelming need for recognition. This
position may often prompt people to either
withdraw or else push others to such states
where they punish him / her, thus reinforcing
his / her Not OK feelings. Another
manifestation of this position could be
eagerness and excess compliantness towards
other persons’ demands.

2. I am Not OK – You are Not OK
If a child early in life feels unwanted,
then (s)he may develop this position. In
this position there is no place for any
hope and even when others want to give
help / support, the position tends to
selectively perceive all experiences to
support his / her position as being totally
unwanted.

3. I am OK – You are Not OK
A child who early in life has very painful
experiences while interacting with others
(including parents) may take succour in the
feeling that I am OK, the rest of the people
are Not OK. ‘A Battered Child’ is most
likely to develop this position. Later he may
just not be able to see his own short
comings and for him, it may always be
‘their fault’, ‘not mine’.

4. I am OK – You are OK
This is of course the ideal life position. The
greatest difference between the first three positions
and this position is that this position is an outcome
of a conscious decision whereas the first three are
unconscious. Since the fourth position is based not
solely on feelings but on thought, it is much more
rational and objective. However, as has been said,
the position does not come by itself. It is a decision
which one makes and efforts obviously have to be
put in to attain this position.

A Critique
Charges of popularization and oversimplification
notwithstanding, T.A. is an excellent method by
which human behavior can be understood. The end
aim of T.A. is to help a person have freedom of
choice, to respond to recurring and new stimuli at
will. We have seen, how much of the freedom may
be lost at the early childhood stage. Restoration of
this freedom is the end aim of T.A. The freedom
may come from the knowledge regarding what is
contained in one’s Parent and the Child. This data
influences present day transactions and the
realization that everyone with whom one deals also
has a Parent, Adult and a Child.

A Critique …Contd.
This knowledge helps an individual to select a
suitable combination of transactions, which may
improve interpersonal relations. While concluding
however, a note of caution would not be out of
place. T.A. should never be assumed to be
panacea, to ascribe upon it the powers of cure all,
would be unnecessarily burdening it and may
result in disillusionment. Nevertheless, T.A. if
understood in its true spirit and used intelligently,
it enables persons to have a Game-Free, Win-Win
relationship with each other, which is the most
fruitful one. In other words, T.A. gives us the blue
print to live a richer and happier life.

Achievement Motivation
Workshops
Definition

Workshops …Contd.
Strengths

Workshops …Contd.
Weaknesses

Implementation
and Evaluation of
Training Programme

Roles of the Trainer
Training is far more than

just standing in front of a
group of learners and
conveying information.

Roles of the Trainer …Contd.
This is the function of doing

everything possible to cause
learning to take place.
The secret is to develop skills in

using a wide variety of training
tools and in expanding the roles.

Roles of the Trainer …Contd.
The trainer is a person of

many roles,
the most important one
being that of
a facilitator of the
learning process.
Facilitation is a
Composite Role
Facilitating involves utilising

all the trainer’s abilities and
available resources in order to
provide the best access to the
knowledge and skills that the
training is designed to impart

The Most Critical Roles
of the Trainer are
1. Subject Expert – who works closely

with other experts, especially in
training – event preparation
2. Counsellor – who helps learning with

the help of learning processes
3. Leader / Motivator – of the learners

The Most Critical Roles
of the Trainer are …Contd.
4. Psychologist – who deals with many

different kinds of people
5. Manager – for self and for the

learners
6. Human Being – who is just like the

learners

Flexibility is Important
There are times
when
the obvious parts of
training,
such as instructing,
may be
the least important.
Training Evaluation
You can waste a great deal of
money on training if you do not
bother to check to see if it has
been worthwhile. This evaluation
of training programmes, or a
component part of it, can be
carried out at different levels.

CIRO Framework
Context
Training needs identification,
environment, problems
Input
Alternative available resources
Reaction
Immediate or subsequent
Outcome
Immediate, intermediate, long term
CIRO Framework …Contd.
Basis
1. What needs to be changed?
2. What procedures are most
likely to bring about this change?
3. What evidence is there that
change has occurred?

Levels of Evaluation
-KIRKPATRICK’s
Model
Step 1 – Reaction
Step 2 – Learning
Step 3 – Behaviour
Step 4 – Results

KIRKPATRICK’s Model …Contd.
Basis
1. How well did the
participants like it?
2. What principles, facts and
techniques were learnt?
3. What changes in job
behaviour resulted?
4. What were the tangible
results?
Reactions Level
The way in which the trainees reach to the
training in terms of enjoyment and perceived
learning; is one basic, but sometimes unreliable,
yardstick. The fact that trainees have enjoyed
themselves may indicate that they found
themselves in a congenial social group, rather
than that they have actually learnt anything. And
the fact that they think they have learnt
something may be a reflection of their
unwillingness to admit that such a happy social
event was, from the learning point of view, a
waste of time.
Reactions Level …Contd.
Evaluation at this level can be either
informal or formal:
1. Informal: Trainees give oral feedback
in answer to general questions such as
‘How did you enjoy it?’ or ‘Which
parts were of most use to you?’
2. Formal: A questionnaire can be
designed to elicit trainees’ reactions to
the course as a whole and to specific
aspect of it.

Immediate Outcome /
Learning Level
The learning objectives, if properly
written, will have included some method
of assessing whether or not the desired
learning has taken place. Evaluation at
this level takes the form of an
examination or test of some kind. This is
designed to sample the kind of learning
that the training was designed to provide.

Intermediate Outcome /
Job Behaviour Level
If the training has been carried out in
response to a clearly identified training need,
arising out of the way in which the trainee
was doing his job prior to the start of the
programme, it should be possible to evaluate
the training by seeing whether his job
performance has changed for the better. The
ease with which this can be done will vary
with the size and complexity of the job and
the factors affecting it.

Ultimate Outcome /
Organisation Change Level
The ultimate evaluation of training comes
when the organization either does or does
not manage to sustain its goals. Some
people would argue that this is the only
truly significant level of evaluation. It
doesn’t matter how well trained the staff
are, if the organization is not achieving
what it should. This is also the most
difficult level of evaluation to carry out,
and, for that reason, the most rarely
applied.
Evaluation Of
Evaluation
1. Immediate
2. After transfer of learning
Can be Done by
observations
3. Inferences

CIPP Model
The CIPP Model is a simple systems model
applied to programme evaluation. A basic open
system includes input, process, and output.
According to Stufflebeam, CIPP stands for
context evaluation, input evaluation, process
evaluation, and product evaluation. These
types are typically viewed as separate forms of
evaluation, but they can also be viewed as steps
or stages in a comprehensive evaluation.

CIPP Model …Contd.
Context evaluation includes examining
and describing the context of the
programme you are evaluating, conducting
a needs and goals assessment, determining
the objectives of the programme, and
determining whether the proposed
objectives will be sufficiently responsive to
the identified needs. It helps in making
programme planning decisions.

Input evaluation includes activities such as a description
of the programme inputs and resources, a comparison of
how the programme might perform compared to other
programmes, a prospective benefit / cost assessment (i.e.,
decide whether you think the benefits will outweigh the
costs of the programme, before the programme is actually
implemented), an evaluation of the proposed design of the
programme and an examination of what alternative
strategies and procedures for the programme should be
considered and recommended. In short, this type of
evaluation examines what the programme plans on doing.
It helps in making programme structuring decisions.

Process evaluation includes examining how a
programme is being implemented, monitoring how the
programme is performing, auditing the programme to
make sure it is following required legal and ethical
guidelines and identifying defects in the procedural
design or in the implementation of the programme. It is
here that evaluators provide information about what is
actually occurring in the programme. Evaluators
typically provide this kind of feedback to programme
personnel because it can be helpful in making formative
evaluation decisions (i.e., decisions about how to modify
or improve the programme). In general, process
evaluation helps in making implementing decisions.

Product evaluation includes determining and examining
the general and specific outcomes of the programme
(i.e., which requires using impact or outcome assessment
techniques), measuring anticipated outcomes, attempting
to identify unanticipated outcomes, assessing the merit of
the programme, conducting a retrospective benefit / cost
assessment (to establish the actual worth or value of the
programme) and / or conducting a cost effectiveness
assessment (to determine if the programme is cost
effective compared to other similar programmes).
Product evaluation is very helpful in making summative
evaluation decisions (e.g., What is the merit and worth of
the programme? Should the programme be continued?)

As you can see, the CIPP Evaluation Model is quite
comprehensive, and one would often not use every
part of the CIPP Model in a single evaluation. On the
other hand, it would be fruitful for you to think about a
small programme (e.g., a training programme in a
local organisation) where you would go through all
four steps or parts of the CIPP Model. (Again, there
are two different ways to view the CIPP model: first as
four distinct kinds of evaluation and second as steps or
stages in a comprehensive evaluation model.) The
CIPP Model is, in general, quite useful in helping us to
focus on some very important evaluation questions and
issues and to think about some different types or stages
of evaluation.

Comparison of the
Evaluation Models
Kirkpatrick CIPP Model IPO Model (1990) TVS Model (1994)
(1959) (1987)
1. Reaction: to 1. Context: 1. Input: evaluation 1. Situation:
gather data on obtaining of system collecting pre-
participants information about performance training data to
reactions at the the situation to indicators such as ascertain current
end of a trainingdecide on trainee levels of
program educational needs qualifications, performance within
and to establish availability of the organisation
programme materials, and defining a
objectives appropriateness of desirable level of
training, etc. future performance

Comparison of the
Evaluation Models …Contd.
Kirkpatrick CIPP Model IPO Model (1990) TVS Model (1994)
(1959) (1987)
2. Learning: to 2. Input: identifying2. Process: 2. Intervention:
assess whether educational embraces identifying the
the learning strategies most planning, design, reason for the
objectives for likely to achieve development and existence of the
the programme the desired result delivery of training gap between the
are met programmes present and
desirable
performance to find
out if training is the
solution to the
problem

Comparison of the
Kirkpatrick CIPP Model IPO Model TVS Model
(1959) (1987) (1990) (1994)
3. Behavior: to 3. Process: 3. Output: 3. Impact:
assess assessing the Gathering data evaluating the
whether job implementation resulting from the difference
performance of the training between the pre-
changes as a educational interventions and post-training
result of programme data
training

Comparison of the
Kirkpatrick (1959) CIPP Model IPO Model TVS Model
(1987) (1990) (1994)
4. Results: to assess 4. Product: 4. Outcomes: 4. Value:
costs vs. benefits of gathering longer-term measuring
training programmes, information results associated differences in
i.e., organisational regarding the with improvement quality,
impact in terms of results of the in the productivity,
reduced costs, educational corporation’s service or sales,
improved quality of intervention to bottom line- its all of which can
work, increased interpret its worth profitability, be expressed in
quantity of work, etc. and merit competitiveness, terms of dollars
etc.

Suggested Future Directions
1. Accept the reality of the
situation
2. Identify opportunities
3. Develop the needed
competences
4. Utilise talent pool for short /
long term requirements of
customers
Training Audit
and
Cost Analysis

Introduction of the Participant
1. Name :
2. Age :
3. Gender :
4. Designation:
5. Nature of Job :
Expectations from the Programme
1. Conceptual Inputs
2. Utility at Work Place
Note: You may mention a situation / problem which

you would like the faculty to discuss on the other side
of this sheet.
Action Planning Format
Programme :
Date (s) :
Name :
Designation :
1. List at least ten learning points of this programme.
2. List those learning points which you can put into
practice at your work situation, in order of priority.
3. Briefly state how you will put them into practice.
4. What is the time frame for implementation of those
points?
5. What management support would you require for
successful implementation of your learning from this
programme?
Place :
Date :
Signature :
Training Programme –
Feedback Form
Organisation :
Programme:
Date (s) :
Venue :
Your feedback regarding the programme, its

achievements / drawbacks and your comments /
suggestions will help us to evaluate this programme
and make changes wherever necessary. Kindly fill
up carefully and elaborate your comments and
suggestions.

Feedback Form …Contd.
1. Did the programme achieve its objectives?
(Please check mark in the relevant column)
- Fully _________________
- Partly _________________
- Not at all _________________
2. Your comments on the coverage of topics:
(Please rate content and exercises / interaction on
the following scale: Excellent – 4; Good – 3;
Average – 2; Poor – 1)
Topic Content Exercises / Remarks
Interaction

3. Duration of the programme was
a) Too Long ___ b) Just right ___ c) Too short ___
4. Duration of the sessions were
a) Too Long ___ b) Just right ___ c) Too short ___
5. Appropriateness of training methodology:
a) Very appropriate _____
b) Somewhat appropriate _____
c) Better methods should be searched _____
6. Scope for participation and improvement:
a) Enough opportunity was given and efforts were
made by the faculty member (s) _____
b) Some opportunity was given _____
c) Sufficient opportunity was not given _____

7. Manner of presentation:
a) Very systematic _____
b) Somewhat systematic _____
c) Not very systematic _____
8. Communication style of faculty members:
a) Very clear ___
b) Somewhat clear ___
c) Not very clear ___
9. Was sufficient opportunity provided for discussion and
clarification of points / doubts?
a) Yes __________ b) No _________
10. Mention any specific session(s) which you found most
useful.
a)
b)
11. Mention any specific session(s) which you found
irrevalent.
a) b)
12. What other topics do you suggest for inclusion in future
programmes of this nature?
a) b)
13. On which topics would you want more information and
of what nature?
a) b)
14. The administrative arrangements for the programme
were:
a) Excellent ____ b) Good ____ c) Average _____
15. How do you plan to use the knowledge, concepts and
skills you learnt during this programme in your work
place?

16. Overall assessment of the programme: on the
whole, do you think the programme was useful
to you?
a) Extremely useful and stimulating_____
b) Very useful _____
c) Somewhat useful _____
d) Of little use _____
e) Of no use at all _____
17. Any other observations / suggestions you would
like to make?
THANK YOU
Evaluating the
Costs of Training
Looking at the outcomes of training is only half
the battle in evaluating its effectiveness. The other
half is determining whether the results were worth
the cost. If grievances do go down and if the new
behaviours are exhibited and the skills learned,
then training might be considered the cause of the
reduction, although cause-and-effect relationships
are never a sure thing. The examination of all four
levels of evaluation provide evidence of cause and
effect and appropriate designs enhance the level of
confidence in cause and effect but not to an
absolute certainty.

Evaluating the
Costs of Training …Contd.
Many managers today still might ask,
“So what? Was the training cost worth
it?” In other words, did the benefits
related to the reduction in grievances
outweigh the training costs incurred?
The “Is the training worth it?” question
can be answered two ways:
1. Cost / benefit evaluation
2. Cost-effectiveness evaluation

Cost / Benefit Evaluation
A cost / benefit evaluation of training compares the
monetary cost of training to the nonmonetary benefits.
It is difficult to place a value on these benefits, which
include attitudes and working relationships. So, the
labour peace brought about by the reduction in
grievances is difficult to assess but rates high in value
in comparison to the cost of training. The conflict
resolution skills learned by supervisors provide the
nonmonetary benefit of better relationships between
supervisors and union officials. Although cost / benefit
analysis is important and of value, it is also possible to
assess the reduction in grievances (for example) in a
way that directly answers the cost-effectiveness
question.

Cost-Effectiveness
Evaluation
A cost-effectiveness evaluation compares
the monetary costs of training to the
financial benefits accrued from training.
Two approaches can be used to assess cost
effectiveness:
1. Calculation of the actual cost savings,
based on the change in “results.”
2. Utility analysis, which examines the
value of overall improvement in
performance of the trained employees.

Cost-Effectiveness
Evaluation …Contd.
The difference between the two is that the cost
savings analysis only looks at the financial value
of improvement in the problem that training was
intended to correct (e.g., reduction in labour
grievances).
Utility analysis looks at all the ways in which

the trainee’s improved job performance will
financially benefit the organisation (e.g.,
reduced grievances, improved relations with
labour force, less turnover and so on).

Cost-Effectiveness
Cost Savings Analysis (Results Focus)
The common types of costs associated with training
programmes are compared to the savings that can be
attributed to training. Suppose the cost of training is
$32,310. Now let’s determine the savings when training
is completed. To perform this cost savings analysis we
must first determine the cost of the current situation
given in the next slide. The company averaged 90
grievances per year. Seventy percent of these (63) go to
the third step before settlement. The average time
required by management (including HR managers,
operational supervisors, etc.) to deal with a grievance that
goes to the third step is 10 hours.

Cost Savings for
Grievance ReductionPost-training
Pre-training
Training
Management Time 10 hrs. x 63 grievances = 630 hrs. 10 hrs. x 8 grievances = 80 hrs.
(for those going to third
step) 10 hours per
grievance
Union Reps Time 7.5 x 63 grievances = 472 hrs. 7.5 x 8 grievances = 60 hrs.
(paid by management)
7.5 hrs per grievance
Total Cost
Management time 630 hrs. x $50 per hr. = $31,500 80 hrs. x $50 per hr. = $4,000
Union reps time 472 hrs. x $25 per hr. = $11,812.50 60 hrs. x $25 per hr. = $1,500
Total $43,312.50 $5,500.00
Reduction in cost of $43,312.50 - $5,500 = $37,812.50
grievances going to the
third step
Cost of training ______ -$32,310.00

Cost saving for the first $5,502.50
year THIRD MILLENNIUM BUSINESS RESOURCE ASSOCIATES PRIVATE LIMITED
Cost-Effectiveness
Cost Savings Analysis (Results Focus) …Contd.
The management wages ($50 per hour on average)
add $500 to the cost of each grievance ($50 x 10). In
addition, union representatives spend an average of
7.5 hours at $25 per hour ($187.50) for those
grievances, wages that are considered paid time as
stipulated in the collective agreement. The total cost
of wages to the company per grievance is $687.50.
Thus, as noted in the previous table, the total cost for
those 63 grievances that go to the third step is
$43,312.50. Now, the savings as a result of training
are indicated in the previous slide.

Cost-Effectiveness
In the first year, the number of grievances dropped
by 50 percent and only eight of those went to the
third step. The drop in grievances suggests training
was worth the cost. The drop should be coupled
with a more positive relationship with the union and
rank and file, a benefit some would say is value
enough. But, let’s calculate the actual cost savings.
Sixty-three grievances cost $43,312.50 prior to the
training and the eight grievances after training cost
$5,500. Thus training reduced the cost of grievances
by $37,812.50.

Cost-Effectiveness
Subtracting the $32,310 training costs from this
amount leaves a savings to the organisation of
$5,502.50 in just the first year. You will note that this
conservative estimate does not include the cost of
materials, facilities and other overhead in the cost of
grievances.
The data show a $37,812.50 return on a $32,310
investment. Dividing the return by the investment
produces a return-on-investment ratio of 1.17. If the
ratio is exactly 1.0, the training broke even. If it is
below that, it cost more than it brings back to the
company.
Cost-Effectiveness
In this case we calculate a 17 percent return on
investment for the first year. Most companies
would be delighted if all their investments
achieved this level of return. In addition, the
nonmonetary benefits described earlier are also
realised. Presenting this type of data to the
corporate decision makers at budget preparation
time is certainly more compelling than stating,
“Thirty supervisors were given a 5-day grievance
reduction workshop.”

Cost-Effectiveness
Many training departments are beginning to see the
importance of placing a monetary value on their
training for a number of reasons:
o HRD budgets are more easily justified and even
expanded when HR can demonstrate it is
contributing to the profit.
o HRD specialists are more successful in
containing costs.
o Showing dollar value for training improves the
image of the training department.

Cost-Effectiveness
Because of the time and effort required to calculate
the value of training, many small business managers
simply do not do it. However, assessing the value of
training is not an exact science and can be done
more easily by means of estimates. Table in previous
slide provides a simplified approach for small
business. When estimates are necessary in
completing this form, it is useful to obtain them from
those who will receive the report (usually top
management). If you use their estimates, it is more
likely that your final report will have credibility. Of
course, larger organisations can also use this
method.

Cost-Effectiveness
Utility Analysis
In the previous example, training supervisors in
grievance handling reduced the total number of
grievances by 50 percent and the number going to
the third step from 63 to 8. We calculated only the
cost savings of the change in third-step
grievances. Utility analysis permits us to estimate
the overall value to the organisation of the
supervisors’ changes in behavior. In other words,
if those trained, on average, are better performers
and better performers are worth more in dollar
terms, utility analysis allows us to estimate that
increased worth.

Cost-Effectiveness
Utility Analysis …Contd.
A general approach to utility is presented next:
∆U = (N)(T)(DT)(SDY) – C
where
∆U = dollar value of improved performance
N = number of trainees
T = time the benefits will last
DT = difference in performance between trained
and untrained groups (in standard
deviation units)
SDY = dollar value of untrained group’s
performance (in standard deviation units)
C = total cost of training the trained group

Cost-Effectiveness
Some of the variables in the equation can be directly
measured whereas others must be estimated. For
example, N, C, and DT can be objectively
determined. On the other hand, determining how
long the benefits will last is really an estimate,
which will be more or less accurate depending on
the estimator’s experience with training, the types of
employees involved and so on. Calculating the
dollar value of the untrained group’s performance
falls somewhere between. It is relatively easy, for
example, to determine the compensation costs.

Cost-Effectiveness
However, it is often more difficult to translate their
actual performance into dollar amounts. Recall our
third-step grievance example. Even though we know
what a third-step grievance costs in management
labour compensation, we don’t know the impact of
those third-step grievances on the productivity of
the work unit or the quality of the product / service.
Thus, what is included in determining the dollar
value of performance becomes a subjective decision.
The final result will be an estimate of the value of
the increased performance in dollars.

Cost-Effectiveness
Utility analysis is complex and beyond the scope of this
discussion; what has been presented here is just a taste of the
complexity.
More complex models account for even more factors that may
affect the true financial value of training outcomes. Our
purpose here is to demonstrate the difficulties of getting a true
picture of the financial benefits associated with training
outcomes. However, these complexities exist for any area of
the business when we try to determine the effects of change.
By becoming more quantitative in the assessment and
description of training outcomes, training managers can put
themselves on an equal footing with the other managers in the
organisation.

Cost-Effectiveness
One important note regarding the use of utility
methods for gaining support of the training
programme you wish to promote: Some recent
research indicated that utility is not an effective
method for garnering support for human resource
policies. In fact, the research concluded that using
utility analysis to bolster your claim as to the value
of a project actually decreased managerial support
for the project. Until it is clear why this tendency is
the case, it may not be wise to use this particular
type of analysis to sell a project. It may still be
useful for showing the benefits after the fact.

Training
Investment Analysis
Part 1: Calculating the Revenue Produced by Training
Option A – Itemized Analysis
Increased sales: ___ Additional sales per employee
x ___ Revenues (or margin) per sale
x ___ Number of employees
= ___ Revenue Produced by
Training
Higher productivity: ___ Percent increase in productivity
x ___ Cost per employee (salary
plus benefits plus overhead)
x Number of employees
= ___ Revenue Produced by
Training

Training
Investment Analysis …Contd.
Option A – Itemized Analysis …Contd.
Reduced errors: ___ Average cost per error
x ___ Number of errors avoided per
employee
= ___ Revenue Produced by Training
Client retention: ___ Average revenue per client
x ___ Number of clients retained
= ___ Revenue Produced by Training
Employee retention: ___ Average cost of a new
employee
(training plus lost productivity)
THIRDretained
MILLENNIUM BUSINESS RESOURCE ASSOCIATES PRIVATE LIMITED
Cost-Effectiveness
Option B – Summary Analysis
__________ - ___________ = ____________
Revenue Revenue Revenue
After Without Produced
Training Training by Training
Part 2: Calculating the Return

__________ - ___________ = ____________
Revenue Cost of Total Return
Produced Training on Training
By Training Investment
4
Paper – EHR 5101

Unit – IV:
Management Development
Sub Topics
o Approaches to Management
Development
o Types of Management Developments
Programmes
Approaches to
Management
Development

Why Focus on
Management Development?
We have already discussed in detail the
training process and a great many training
techniques. So why single out managers for
special consideration? Don’t the processes
and techniques already presented apply to
them? The answer is yes. However, several
reasons prompt us to examine this part of
the organisational community in more
detail. Perhaps foremost is how important
management development is in today’s
environment.

Why Focus on
Management Development? …Contd.
Evidence indicates that those companies
that align their management development
with their strategic planning are generally
more competitive. So, we need to thoroughly
understand such an important part of
organisational competitiveness. Other
related reasons include the following:
1. Managers get a lot of training
2. Managers are accountable for success
3. Managers’ jobs are complex

Why Focus on
Managers get a lot of training
One of the most frequent types of training
provided by companies over the last several
years is management development and
executive leadership. This is true across
every industry from financial and banking
institutions to manufacturing to
communications to utilities. Management
training is more important as the
organisation increases in size.

Why Focus on
Managers get a lot of training …Contd.
For companies of all sizes approximately 37
percent of all training budgets go toward
management and executive training. Thus,
whether large of small and regardless of
industry, management training is seen as a
vital part of improving organisational
performance. A training professional needs
to understand a part of the business that is
in such demand.

Why Focus on
Managers are accountable for success
Managers carry a different and more complex
burden for ensuring the success of the enterprise
than non-managers. The business environment over
the next decade is expected to place even more
demands on management. Consider the following
responsibilities of the manager of the new
millennium:
o Managers face a shrinking labour pool in
terms of the skilled and educated. It is
management’s responsibility to grow and keep
the talent necessary to be competitive.

Why Focus on
Managers are accountable for success …
Contd.
o At the same time, more technologically
sophisticated systems are being
implemented and management is
responsible for ensuring that employees
obtain the knowledge and skills required to
perform their jobs.
o They must also deal with a more diverse
workforce and see that diversity is a
strength and not allow it to become a focus
of divisiveness.

Why Focus on
Managers are accountable for success …
Contd.
o Mergers, acquisitions, downsizing and
fast-paced changes must all be managed
effectively.
In fact, it is management’s responsibility to
ensure that all systems and resources are
appropriately integrated so the organisation
can achieve its objectives. No wonder
companies place a high priority on developing
the KSAs of their managers.

Why Focus on
Managers’ jobs are complex.

Perhaps the most important reason to closely
examine management development lies in the
nature of managerial effectiveness. What makes
a manager effective is more complex and
difficult to ascertain than are most other targets
of training and development. Thus it is more
difficult to assess needs, to develop training
content and methods and most certainly, to
evaluate the effects of training.

Why Focus on
Managers’ jobs are complex …Contd.
A good training process first develops an
understanding of the employees’ training needs
before designing the training programme. For
management development this is not easy.
Typically, a manager’s effectiveness is
determined by how well her / his unit meets its
objectives. However, determining his training
needs from the performance of the unit is
problematic. A complex alignment of many
factors influences the unit’s performance and the
manager can affect these factors in many ways.

Why Focus on
To understand a manager’s development needs,
you must first understand the context in which
the manager and the unit operate. This context
includes the strategic direction of the
organisation, the technology of the manager’s
unit, the human and financial resources available
to the unit and how the unit relates to the rest of
the organisation.
Information about the context in which the
manager must operate is collected from an
organisational analysis.

Why Focus on
The operational analysis identifies the
managerial competencies required to create the
appropriate match between the organisation’s
strategy and the unit’s structure, resources and
technology so the unit is able to achieve its
objectives. To identify the manager’s
developmental needs, her / his attitudes,
knowledge, skills and behavioural styles are
compared with the competencies required for the
job.
Why Focus on Management
Development? …Contd.
The job in this case is the management position in a
particular unit. Determining all these factors is
difficult enough, but it becomes even more difficult
when you realise in how many ways a manager may
go about achieving the unit’s objectives. Just
identifying a manager’s developmental needs is a
complex task filled with ambiguities. Identifying or
developing a training programme to meet those needs
is just as difficult and ambiguous.
Our Approach to Management
Development
It is only after the managerial process is understood that
appropriate needs analysis can occur. This understanding
is also required for the trainer to be able to select the
instructional strategy that will best meet the manager’s
developmental needs. Although we may identify some
sources from which training programmes can be acquired
or developed, the fact that literally thousands of
programmes are available and new management
development programmes are developed frequently, as
older ones fall out of favour and then many years later
suddenly reemerge as a “favoured” approaches throws up
its own problems.
Development …Contd.
The focus is on increasing your ability to determine
management development needs. Our philosophy is
that the educated consumer makes wiser choices.
Understanding the match required between managers
and their organisational context provides two long-
lasting benefits to the training professional:
1. An increased ability to determine a manager’s
development needs

Development …Contd.
2. An increased ability to assess accurately the
appropriateness of a particular training
programme for meeting those needs.
Thus we provide an integrated framework (a model)
for assessing managerial behaviour within the
organisational context. Again, doing so takes a
systems perspective in which we look at the manager
within the unit and within the organisation.

General Overview of the
Managerial Job
A well-established principle of management holds that
the effectiveness of particular managerial styles,
behaviours and traits is contingent on other
organisational variables. That is, a successful
managerial approach in one situation can be
unsuccessful in another. How, then, can general
statements be made about managerial duties and
responsibilities across industries ? Actually, no real
contradiction arises here.

General Overview of the
Managerial Job …Contd.
The general activities carried out by managers seem to
show more similarities than differences. However, the
frequency, the relative importance and the manner in
which these behaviours are performed differ greatly
between organisations, even within the same industry.
The first task is to understand the general makeup of
the managerial job. With that understanding, we can
turn our attention to some of the contextual factors
that determine the frequency and style in which these
activities are performed.
Managerial Roles
Much of the research on managerial activity is
integrated into general roles that are “customised” to
fit into a particular management position in a
particular organisation. There is a relationship among
these roles, which form an integrated whole in which
each role affects the others. One implication of this
model is that managers must not only demonstrate the
KSAs required to perform each role, but also the
KSAs required for their integration.

Managerial Roles …Contd.
Although individual managers may give more or less
importance to a particular role, eliminating or
neglecting one role results in direct consequences on
the performance of other roles and hence on
managerial effectiveness.
Mintzberg defined a manager as anyone who is in
charge of an organisation or one of its sub-units. The
manager’s roles derive directly or indirectly from the
formal authority and status granted to the position.

Some less systematic but more flavourful descriptions
of day-to-day managerial work are listed here:
o Engaging in brief, varied and discontinuous
activities
o Accommodating an unrelenting pace of activity
o Performing numerous regular duties, as well as
handling the exceptions in their own as well as
subordinates’ routine
o Making decisions on the basis of judgment and
intuition

o Providing subordinates with a clear understanding of
their jobs and boundaries (yet jobs overlap and
boundaries blur)
o Recognising that routine and standardisation are
required to achieve efficiency but often must be
sacrificed to create change; feeling comfortable
doing either
o Needing controls and valid information, yet knowing
that controls reduce information validity
o Regarding rules and standards as important
constraints that must be observed, but
acknowledging they are often inconsistent and
making decisions about which must be ignored to
meet others.
From the descriptions of managerial activity above it
is clear that managers operate in a dynamic internal
environment where they must constantly act to meet
the challenges of new circumstances. Managers of
subunits must not only adapt to new circumstances
themselves, but coordinate their actions with other
subunits that are also adapting. Typically little time is
available for careful planning and reflection. When
careful planning occurs, it often would not reflect new
circumstances that arose after the plan was developed.

Managers must be able to get their hands on the
knowledge and skills necessary to meet these
challenges as soon as they arise. This is not to say
careful planning and reflective analysis are not
important in organisations. Managers, however, often
cannot take much time for this important activity. For
that reason, many organisations maintain staff units
whose job it is to provide the manager with
recommendations based on careful planning and
thoughtful reflection.

A typical manager, however, must quickly diagnose a
situation, develop an appropriate response, see that it
is implemented and move on to the next task. This
process requires that the manager understand the
organisation, its strategies and capabilities, how his
unit fits into the puzzle and how his behaviour will
influence events.

Implications
The key to effective management development is
to determine the roles required for the position and
from these roles the relevant KSAs (operational
analysis).
Then as in a traditional needs analysis you assess
the current KSAs of the managers (person
analysis). The 360-DF, when used properly, is an
effective tool for determining the managers’
current KSA levels.
Implications …Contd.
A number of methods can be used to obtain the
relevant training for managers, from externally based
programmes to corporate universities. Depending on
the need—conceptual, technical, interpersonal, or
even development of personal traits—all can be
provided through various programmes.
The technical manager faces special problems. When
training is primarily technical, success is typically
based on that expertise.

So, when a technical professional is promoted and
suddenly needs management skills to be effective,
that person is often not prepared. Developmental
plans to prepare the technical manager for moving
into the management position will make the
transition more successful. The manager needs to
understand the importance of these skills and be
provided with opportunities to develop them.

Development of executives is critical to
organisational functioning but again, it is often
ignored. Special attention needs to be focused here
because executives are already at the top and
likely feel competent or at least do not like to ask
for help. It is difficult for someone who is a peer
or lower to be credible enough to offer advice.
Executives are also busy, often working long
hours, making it difficult to find the time to
receive any training.
393
Executive coaching is one way to deal with these
issues. Its use has grown at a tremendous rate over the
last few years. Other methods are also available and
the key to smooth development is succession
planning. An effective succession plan will allow all
executives and high-level managers to be constantly
appraised and provided with opportunities to develop
using many of the methods mentioned, such as
coaching, action learning, executive MBAs, and so
forth.
Executive Coaching / Mentoring
Not long ago, coaching was considered a corrective
method for inadequate performance. Not any more. A
personal coach provides one way for the executive to deal
with a busy schedule. For the CEO, the coach is an ideal
training format. It can be done at the CEO’s convenience,
it is one-on-one and it provides an opportunity for
feedback from a professional from outside the
organisation.The difference between coaching and
mentoring is that mentoring is generally more of an on-
going relationship and cosching is often for a shorter,
more specific length of time.

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the negotiation skills of Mahatma Gandhi,

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Human Resource Processes

Focus of each process is on people and results

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Human Resource Development

is the process of helping people

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1. Detailed discussion with the

6. Design an HRD action plan

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7. Implement the plan

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Procurement (Recruitment & Selection)

Placement and Reportability Key Areas (Target,

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Our motto seems to be ‘Better

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Many more such differences

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o What should happen ?

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Experienced trainers know that

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3. Design and implementation

Whether training is the right solution to bridge the gap?

Lack of improvement in programme and organisation

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2. External Courses …Contd.

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