Variables

 It is very important
in research to see
variables, define
them, and control or
measure them.
 Name some of the
variables in a
classroom.
 Outline of today’s
presentation
1. The concept and definition of variable
2. Variables in research
3. Constructs versus variables
4. Operationalization
5. Types and functions of variables
6. Measurement Scales
The concept of variable
 The concept of variable is basic but very
important in research. You won't be able
to do very much in research unless you
know how to deal with variables.
 A variable is any entity that can take on
different values across individuals and
time.
 Some examples
 Age can be considered a variable because
age can take different values for different
people or for the same person at different
times.

 Similarly, country can be considered a

variable because a person's country can be
assigned a value.
 Variables in research
 Variables are things that we measure,
control, or manipulate in research.
 The measurement may be different from
everyday notions of measurement such as
weight and temperature.
 Measurement can involve merely
categorization (e.g. sex, country, etc.)
 Remember
 Most variables that differ over time also vary
among individuals, but the reverse is not true.
That is, the variables that differ among
individuals may not necessarily differ over
time.
 An example for the former is “proficiency”
and for the latter is “sex.”
 Can you give some more examples for the two
variables?
 Operationalization
 Variables such as intelligence, motivation,
and academic achievement are concepts,
constructs, or traits that cannot be observed
directly.
 They should be stated in precise definitions
that can be observed and measured. This
process is called operationalization.
 Operationalization

Scores on the
Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Intelligence
Scale
operationalization

Operational definition of
Trait or construct intelligence
 Operationalization

Scores on the
Proficiency TOEFL test

Operational definition of
Trait or construct proficiency
 Operational definition of a
variable
 With students’ intelligence scores or TOEFL
scores, we now have observable and
quantifiable definitions of what the researcher
means by the constructs of “intelligence” and
“proficiency”.

 This is an operational definition of the

variable.
 Important point!
 Operational definitions must be based
upon a theory that is generally recognized
as valid.
 For example, to operationalize the
construct of “proficiency” we should
construct a test based on an accepted
theory or model of language proficiency.
 Different types and
functions of variables
 In addition to knowing how constructs are
operationalized as variables, it is
important to understand how such
variables are classified and manipulated
by researchers in their quest to empirical
knowledge.
 To that end, we describe five different
functions of variables.
 Functions of variables
 To assess the relationship between variables in
research, we must be able to identify each
variable. Variables can be classified as:

1. Independent
2. Dependent
3. Moderator
4. Control
5. Intervening
 Independent vs. Dependent
Variables
 An important distinction having to do with the
term 'variable' is the distinction between an
independent and dependent variable.
 This distinction is particularly relevant when
you are investigating cause-effect relationships
(experiment). However, the concept is also
used in other research designs.
Independent vs. dependent V.

 In fact the independent variable is

what you (or nature) manipulates -- a
treatment or program or cause. The
dependent variable is what is affected
by the independent variable -- your
effects or outcomes.
 Independent Variables
 The independent variable is the major variable
which you hope to investigate. It is the
variable which is selected, manipulated, and
measured (its effect) by the researcher.
Examples:
 The effect of your instruction on reading
scores of your students.
 The effect of social class on language use.
 Dependent variable

 The dependent variable is the variable

which you observe and measure to
determine the effect of the independent
variable.
 In the previous examples, the reading
scores of your students and the use of
language would be the dependent
variable.
 Two points
1. A variable that functions as a dependent
variable in one study may be an
independent variable in another study.
2. Depending on the design of the study, we
may have more than one independent and
even more than one dependent variable in
the study.
 Moderator variable
 A moderator variable is a special type of
independent variable which you may select
for study in order to investigate whether it
modifies the relationship between the
dependent and independent variables.
 Example, sex in the study of the effect of
instruction on students’ reading scores
 Independent vs. moderator
variable
 The essential difference between independent
and moderator variables lies in how the
researcher views each in the study.
 For independent variables, the concern is with
their direct relationship to the dependent
variable, whereas for moderator variables, the
concern is with their effect on that
relationship.
 Control variables
 It is virtually impossible to include all the
potential variables in each study. As a result,
the researcher must attempt to control, or
neutralize, all other extraneous variables that
are likely to have an effect on the relationship
between the independent, dependent, and
moderator variables.
 Control variables
 Control variables, then, are those that the
researcher has chosen to keep constant,
neutralize, or otherwise eliminate so that
they will not have an effect on the study.
 Example, the effect of outside practice on
reading in the previous example.
 Intervening variables
 Intervening variables are constructs (other
than the construct under study) that may
explain the relationship between
independent and dependent variables but
are not directly observable themselves.
 We are somehow aware of their effects, but
we are not able to account for them.
The relationship among variables
The Study

Independent Intervening Dependent

Variable(s) Variable(s) Variable(s)

Moderator
Variable(s)

Control
Variable(s)
 Two points
 When designing a study, the researcher
determines which variables fall into
each category.

 In real situations, all five types of

variables may not be included in all
studies.
 Measurement Scales
 To measure different variables, we have
four measurement scales:

1. Nominal Scale
2. Ordinal Scale
3. Interval Scale
4. Ratio Scale
 Nominal Scale
 Nominal scale classifies persons or
objects into two or more categories.
Members of a category have a common
set of characteristics, and each member
may only belong to one category. Other
names: categorical, discontinuous,
dichotomous (only two categories).
 True vs. artificial
categories
 True categories are those to which the
member naturally falls, such as gender
(male vs. female).
 Artificial categories are those to which the
researcher places the members, such as
learning style (field independent versus
field dependent).
 Ordinal Scale
Ordinal variables allow us to rank order
the items we measure in terms of which
has less and which has more of the
quality represented by the variable, but
still they do not allow us to say "how
much more.“
Example: Ranking students
 Ordinal Scale
Ordinal scales both classify subjects and
rank them in terms of how they possess
the characteristic of interest. Members
are placed in terms of highest to lowest,
or most to least. Students may be ranked
by height, weight, or IQ scores. Ordinal
scales do not, however, state how much
difference there is between the ranks.
 Interval Scale
Not only rank order the items that are measured,
but also to quantify and compare the sizes of
differences between them.
For example: students performance on a spelling test
A score of 16 will be higher than 14 and lower
than 18 and the difference between them is 2
points (equal intervals).
Interval scales normally have an arbitrary minimum
and maximum point. A score of zero in a
spelling test does not represent an absence of
spelling knowledge, nor does a score of 20
represent perfect spelling knowledge.
 Ratio Scale
Very similar to interval scale; has all the properties
of interval variables, it has absolute zero point.
Height, weight, speed, and distance are examples of
ratio scales. Measurements made with ratio scales
can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided.
For example, we can say that a person who runs a
mile in 5 minutes is twice as fast as a person who
runs the mile in 10 minutes. Because ratio scales are
often used in physical measurements (where absolute
zero exists), they are not often employed in
educational research and testing.