The process of water treatment can be broadly

classified in to 2 stages.
1. PT-Stage:
In Pre-treatment all the suspended/ colloidal particles
like clay, mud, and micro organisms are removed.
2. Demineralisation:
In this step, all dissolved solids are removed from
water with the aid of ion exchanger resins.

May 26, 2011 1

 PRE-TREATMENT PROCESS
ALUM & POLYMER
LIME & Cl2

CLARIFIED WATER
STORAGE TANK
CLFR-B TO CT MAKE
STILLING UP
STILLING
CHAMBER
CHAMBR

TO GSF
CLFR-A

RAW
WATER

SLUDGE TO SLUDGE PIT

May 26, 2011 2

May 26, 2011 3
SETTLING TIMES FOR VARIOUS PARTICLES

Particle diameter Settling time

Type of
mm µ
m A through 1m of
particle
water
10 104 108 Gravel 1 second
1 103 107 Sand 10 seconds
10-1 102 106 Fine Sand 2 minutes
10-2 10 105 Clay 2 hours
10-3 1 104 Bacteria 8 days
10-4 10-1 103 Colloid 2 years
10-5 10-2 102 Colloid 20 years
10-6 10-3 10 Colloid 200 years
 FILTERED WATER PRODUCTION

C GSF-A
L
F
FILTERED
W GSF-B WATER
A
SUMP
T
E
R GSF-C

May 26, 2011 5

 SLUDGE TREATMENT

SLUDGE PIT

DEWATERING
SLUDGE CENTRIFUGES
SLUDGE FROM THICKENERS
CLARIFIERS

May 26, 2011 6

May 26, 2011 7
May 26, 2011 8
 DEWATERING CENTRIFUGE 

SLUDGE CAKE FOR DISPOSAL 

May 26, 2011 9

 DEMINERALISATION STEPS
FIL.WTR

ACF SAC DG SBA MB

DMW DM WATER
STORAGE TANKS
May 26, 2011 10
 DEMINERALISATION
• In ACF Bed removes the residual Cl2 and fine
turbidity present in filtered water
• After ACF, water enters the SAC Bed, where
the Cations in water are replaced with H+ as
follows:
R – H + Na Cl R – Na + HCl
2 R – H + CaSO4 R2Ca + H2SO4
2 R – H + Ca(HCO3)2 R2Ca + 2H2CO3

May 26, 2011 11

 DEMINERALISATION
• All Cations are exchanged in SAC Bed to
form acids like HCl, H2SO4, HNO3 etc.
Bicarbonate is exchanged in SAC form
carbonic acid (H2CO3).
• In the Degasser the water is sprayed from
top and air blow (which has very less CO2
content) is given in counter direction.
H2CO3  H2O + CO2
• The process is similar to removal of
dissolved O2 in Deaerator using steam.
May 26, 2011 12
 DEMINERALISATION STEPS
FIL.WTR

ACF SAC DG SBA MB

DMW DM WATER
STORAGE TANKS
May 26, 2011 13
 DEMINERALISATION
• The degassed water is then pumped
through SBA Bed, where anions are
replaced with OH- to form water as given
below:

• R-OH + HCl  RCl + H2O

• 2 R-OH + H2SO4  R2SO4 +2H2O

May 26, 2011 14

 DEMINERALISATION STEPS
FIL.WTR

ACF SAC DG SBA MB

DMW DM WATER
STORAGE TANKS
May 26, 2011 15
 MIXED BED
• Mixed Bed (MB) contains a mixture of SAC
and SBA resins and act as ‘polishing unit’
for water from SBA. The output of MB is
‘Demineralised Water’ and is practically
free from all ions.
• DM water is having a conductivity <0.2
µ S/cm and a pH of 6.8-7.0

May 26, 2011 16

 DEMINERALISATION STEPS
FIL.WTR

ACF SAC DG SBA MB

DMW DM WATER
STORAGE TANKS
May 26, 2011 17
 REGENERATION OF DM-STREAMS

For regenerating the Resin beds, acid and alkali are

used.
 SAC resin bed is regenerated using HCl.
 Anion bed (SBA) is regenerated by NaOH injection.
The regeneration effluent containing acid and alkali is
neutralized in N-pit and pumped to ETP for disposal.

May 26, 2011 18

 THEORY OF COOLING TOWER
OPERATION
 In KyCCPP, clarified water is used for
cooling tower make up.
 In cooling tower, the cooling effect is due to
the evaporation of water.
 Due to the above process, the concentration
of dissolved solids (TDS) in the circulating
water increases steadily.

May 26, 2011 19

 EVAPORATION RATE IN
COOLING TOWER
The Evaporation Rate in cooling tower is given by:
E=0.0018 x dT x R
R=Recirculation Rate, [21,800MT/Hr]
dT=Temp. difference in oC, [9.5 oC]
E=Evaporation Rate (MT/Hr), [373 MT/Hr]

May 26, 2011 20

 CYCLES OF CONCENTRATION

It is the ratio of the dissolved solids in the

circulating water to the dissolved solids
content in fresh make up water.

COC = TDS IN CIRCULATING WATER

TDS IN MAKEUP WATER

May 26, 2011 21

 MARBLE TEST
It is a simple test to check the corrosive/
scaling nature of a sample of water.

MARBLE PIECE(KNOWN WEIGHT)

May 26, 2011 22

 MARBLE TEST
 If the marble piece increases its weight
during the test, then the water is having
scaling tendency.
 If the marble piece looses its wt., then the
water is corrosive in nature.
 If there is no change in wt., then the water
is chemically ‘Balanced’.

May 26, 2011 23

 SATURATION pH

• It is the ‘pH’ of the ‘chemically balanced’

water.
pHs = [(9.3+A+B) – (C+D)]
Where, A = Function of TDS
B = Function of Temperature
C = Function of Hardness
D = Function of Alkalinity
May 26, 2011 24
 EFFECT ON CORROSION
Any factor that raises the value of pHs will increase
corrosion rate. Thus:
TDS  Higher the TDS, greater is the corrosion

TEMP  Higher the Temp, lower is the corrosion

CaH  Higher the Ca-H, lower is the corrosion

Alkalinity  Higher the Alkalinity, lower the corrosion

May 26, 2011 25

 VALUES OF A, B, C & D w.r.to TDS, TEMP,
Ca-H AND ALKALINITY
TDS A TEMP B Ca-H C Alk. D
(PPM) O
F (OC) (PPM) (PPM)
50 0.07 40(4.4) 2.48 10 0.6 5 0.7
75 0.08 50(10) 2.34 30 1.08 10 1.0
100 0.10 60(15.5) 2.20 50 1.30 20 1.3
150 0.11 70(21.1) 2.06 100 1.60 30 1.48
200 0.13 80(26.7) 1.95 200 1.90 50 1.70
300 0.14 90(32.2) 1.84 250 2.08 70 1.85
400 0.16 100(37.8) 1.74 300 2.08 100 2.0
600 0.18 110(43.3) 1.65 400 2.20 200 2.3
800 0.19 120(48.9) 1.57 500 2.30 300 2.48
1000 0.20 150(65.6) 1.32 900 2.56 500 2.7
May 26, 2011 26
 LANGLIER INDEX(LI)

Langlier Index, LI = (pH – pHs)

Where,
pH = Measured pH
pHs = Saturation pH (Calculated)
The recommended value of Langlier Index (LI)
for circulating water is –0.5 to +0.5

May 26, 2011 27

 REIZNER INDEX(RI)

Ryzner Index, RI = (2pHs- pH)

Where,
pH = Measured pH
pHs = Saturation pH (Calculated)
The recommended value of Langlier Index (LI)
for circulating water is 6.0 – 8.0

May 26, 2011 28

 BIOFOULING IN COOLING WATER

Microorganisms can form scaling and

corrosion by producing slimy & gelatinous
growth on the heat transfer surfaces of the
condenser tubes.
This will lead to reduced heat transfer and
chocking of the condenser tubes.

May 26, 2011 29

 MICRO ORGANISMS FOUND IN
COOLING WATER SYSTEMS

Organisms typically found in cooling water

systems falls in to three main groups:

 FUNGI
ALGAE
BACTERIA

May 26, 2011 30

 ALGAE
• Due to the presence of chlorophyll, algae is
generally coloured green, blue-green or blue
• Sunlight is required for their growth
• Attacks concrete, choke tubes, and induces
corrosion.
• Cl2, quaternary ammonium salts, Copper Salts
etc. are effective for prevention.

May 26, 2011 31

 FUNGI
• Fungi are microscopic plants visible to naked
eye(mold growing on bread)-lacks
chlorophyll
• Attack damp wood leading to its decay
• Cl2 is not very effective against fungi
• Sodium penta chlorophenate and tributyl tin
are effective

May 26, 2011 32

 BACTERIA
• Bacteria forms slimy growth on metal
surfaces leading to corrosion, gas
production as well as scaling
 Bacteria responsible for biofouling in
cooling tower can be classified under 3
groups:
a. Iron depositing Bacteria
b. Sulphate reducing Bacteria
c. Nitrifying Bacteria
May 26, 2011 33
 IRON DEPOSITING BACTERIA

• These bacteria Iron oxide as byproduct

during their metabolism by converting
soluble ferrous iron salts to Ferric salts
• Can be effectively controlled by
Chlorine dosing

May 26, 2011 34

SULPHATE REDUCING BACTERIA

 These bacteria converts Sulphate to

Sulphide(liberates H2S in acidic conditions)
which attack metal surface and concrete.
 Cl2 dosing is not effective against these
organisms as H2S surrounding these organisms
can negate the effect of chlorine.
 Organo-Sulphur compounds(Methylene Bio
Thiocyanate) and long chain amine salts are
very effective against these bacteria.
May 26, 2011 35
 NITRIFYING BACTERIA

 These bacteria reduces ammonia to

Nitric acid, which leads to drop in pH.
 Ammonia is picked up from atmosphere
or from the system itself.
 Mild steel, Aluminium and Copper are
attacked by these Bacteria.
 Chlorine is very effective in controlling
these Bacteria.
May 26, 2011 36
 BOILER WATER TREATMENT
• All volatile treatment: Here, only Hydrazine & Ammonia
are used to maintain the required pH, DO etc.
Generally dosing is done in Dearator Outlet.
• Hydrazine removes the dissolved O2 and decomposes
to NH3 at higher temperatures to maintain pH.

N2H4 + O2 >180Deg.C
N2 + 2H2O

3N2H4 >250DegC
4NH3 + N2
 OXYGEN SCAVENGERS
• Hydrazine
6Fe203 + N2H4 = N2 + 2H20 + 4 Fe304
10.0
Hydrazine
8.0
Catalysed Hydrazine
6.0

D.O. 4.0
Catalysed DEHA
ppm
2.0
• DEHA
10 20
Contact Time In Minutes
(C2H5)2 NOH + 9O2  8 CH3 COOH + 2N2 + 6H2O
Its2011
May 26, Bye Products too scavange Oxygen 38
 BOILER WATER TREATMENT
PHOSPHATE TREATMENT :
• Phosphate undergo hydrolysis as follows

Na3PO4 + 2H2O  NaH2PO4 + 2NaOH

Na2HPO4 + H2O  NaH2PO4 + H2O

As the above reaction is reversible, the pH value

will not increase beyond 12.5 as long as PO4 ion is
present in the system.
 pH vs PHOSPHATE
PHOSPHATE(PPM) pH
10 10.1
20 10.4
60 10.8
80 10.9
100 11.0
120 11.1
140 11.1
May 26, 2011 40
 BOILER WATER TREATMENT
PHOSPHATE TREATMENT :
• Phosphate will form a sludge with various
ions like Ca2+ & Mg2+ and can be blown out
through CBD.

Na3PO4 + MgSO4  Mg3(PO4)2 + Na2SO4

(Sludge)
Na3PO4 + CaCl2  Ca3(PO4)2 + 2NaCl
(Sludge)
 PHOSPHATE HIDE OUT
• In high pressure boilers, (P>65Kg/cm2)
loss of phosphate is observed when the
system is on load, but reappears again
when the pressure is reduced. This is
known as ‘phosphate hide out’.
• This is due to the low solubility of
phosphate in water at elevated
temperatures(Temp.>1200C)
May 26, 2011 42
 SILICA CONTROL
• Silica present in steam can form deposit
scaling on turbine blades.
DRUM PRESSURE LIMIT OF SiO2 IN
(Kg/CM2) DRUM WATER(PPM)

60 8.2
80 3.8
100 1.9
120 0.9
130 0.70
140 0.52
145 0.48
150 0.4
160 0.3
 OXYGEN SCAVENGERS
• Tannins

- Tannin chemisorb
Oxygen Molecules
- Tannin also is an excellent
Iron Dispersant
- Tannin forms Tannate Film
Excellent Corrosion Inhibition
- Tannins improve the
performances of Antifoam
May 26, 2011 44
 Silica
&
Carry over
May 26, 2011 45
 SILICA DISTRIBUTION RATIO
DRUM PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION RATIO
(lb/in2) / [Kg/cm2]
1250(87.5) 0.0045
1500(105) 0.0075
1750(123) 0.012
2000(140) 0.02
2250(158) 0.03
2500(175) 0.05
2750(192) 0.08
3000(210) 0.16
May 26, 2011 46
 Silica Volatilisation
Silica is present as silicic acid, Effect :pH on Silicic Acid
Si(OH)4. It dissociates in Volatility.
pH Silica ppm Steam/
alkaline condition : . Sio2 in H20 as %
_ _
Si(OH)4 + OH ---> 12 0.55
H2SiO3 +
H2O 11 0.77

Volatile silicic acid gets 10 1.02

converted to soluble silicate ion
above pH 9.5 9 1.25

As pressure increases , Silica 8 1.48

becomes more volatile, Silica
7 1.73
content is therefore kept within
limits as
May 26, per boiler pressure
2011 47
 Priming / Foaming
• Priming : Mechanical reasons
- Faulty steam
separators -
Load fluctuation
- Water level fluctuation
-
Sudden steam demand
• Foaming
– Carry over :
May 26, 2011 48
- Chemical reasons
 CORROSION

May 26, 2011 49

 Mechanism of Corrosion
Anodic : Area over which metal is oxidised is Anode.
Fe + OH- = Fe (OH)2 + 2e-
Cathodic: Area over which the oxidant material is reduced
is called Cathode. 2 e - + ½ 02 + H20 = 20H _

Ions flow through the solution ( water ) and Electrons

May flow
26, 2011through the metal. 50
 Carbonic Acid Attack Control
Fe + 2H2CO3 = Fe ++ + 2 HCO3 - + H2
Oxidation ofIrontogiveFerrousion andHydrogenGas. Atypical

condensatecorrosion.

Controlled by using : Amine

Technology: Neutralising Amines
May 26, 2011
Filming Amines 51
 CORROSION

May 26, 2011 52

 CAUSTIC GOUGING
High Conc of Na0H during Film Boiling
Next Stage is Caustic Embrittlement

May 26, 2011 53

 CAUSTIC EMBRITTLEMENT
Fe3O4 + 4NaOH = 2 NaFeO2 + Na2FeO2 + H2O
(Sodium ferroate)
Fe + NaOH = Na2FeO2(Sodium Ferrite) + H2

Porous magnetite films, deposits, cracks allow

localised build up of OH in that cause damage.
May 26, 2011 54
 Hydrogen Damage
• Almost all The hydrogen
damage is associated
with Caustic Gauging

May 26, 2011 55