Reproduction

– Living organisms reproduce by two methods

– Asexual reproduction
– Offspring are identical to the original cell or organism
– Involves inheritance of all genes from one parent
– Sexual reproduction
– Offspring are similar to parents, but show variations in
traits
– Involves inheritance of unique sets of genes from two
parents

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 Cell Reproduction
– Cellular reproduction is the process by which organisms
(unicellular, multicellular) reproduce
– Cell arise from pre-existing cells
• Cellular reproduction involves two important processes
– Growth
– Cell division
• Growth involves duplication of the cell’s DNA and
contents in cytoplasm
• Cell division involves the separation of the cell’s DNA and
content into daughter cells
 Chromatin
– Eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of chromatin
– Chromatin = DNA + proteins
– To prepare for division, the chromatin becomes highly compact,
and the chromosomes are visible with a microscope
– Early in the division process, chromosomes duplicate
– Each chromosome appears as two sister chromatids,
containing identical DNA molecules
– Sister chromatids are joined at the centromere

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Chromatin to Chromosomes
Sister chromatids

Centromere
 The Cell Cycle
• The process of cellular reproduction involves an ordered
series of steps - cell cycle
• A cell spends most of its existence in interphase
– Most of interphase involves the normal activities and functions of
cell
– Part of interphase is spent preparing the cell for cell division
 The cell cycle
– The cell cycle is an ordered sequence of events for cell
division
– It consists of two stages
– Interphase: duplication of cell contents
– G1—growth, increase in cytoplasm
– S—duplication of chromosomes – DNA replication
– G2—growth, preparation for division
– Mitotic phase: division
– Mitosis—division of the nucleus
– Cytokinesis—division of cytoplasm

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 INTERPHASE

S
G1
(DNA synthesis)

i s
n es G2
ki
s
o
si

y t
it o

C
MIT
M

PHA OTIC
SE
(M)
 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
• The separation of the sister chromatids during mitosis
produces two genetically identical daughter chromosomes.
• The daughter cells produced by mitosis have the same
number of chromosomes as the original cell and each has
identical content
 Chromosome
duplication

Sister
Centromere chromatids

Chromosome
distribution
to
daughter
cells
 Mitosis
– Mitosis progresses through a series of stages
– Prophase
– Metaphase
– Anaphase
– Telophase
– Cytokinesis often overlaps telophase

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 The Spindle
• In most eukaryotic cells, the separation of identical
chromatids during mitosis utilizes spindle fibers
• The spindle fibers are organized by the centrosome
 INTERPHASE PROPHASE PROMETAPHASE
Centrosomes Chromatin Early mitotic Centrosome Fragments
(with centriole pairs) spindle of nuclear Kinetochore
envelope

Nuclear Plasma Centromere Spindle

envelope membrane Chromosome, consisting microtubules
Nucleolus of two sister chromatids
 METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS

Metaphase Cleavage Nucleolus

plate furrow forming

Nuclear
Daughter envelope
Spindle chromosomes forming
 Questions!
– Human cells have 46 chromosomes. By the end of
interphase
– How many chromosomes are present in one cell?
– How many chromatids are present in one cell?

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 Phases of Mitosis in Animal Cells
• Cytokinesis - Cytoplasm is divided into separate cells
- Occurs after mitosis or at the same time
with telophase
- It occurs differently in animal and plant
cells
• The cell cycle is completed after cytokinesis
• Cytokinesis does not always occur!!!
– If cytokinesis does not occur, the cell will be multinucleated
(have multiple nuclei)
 Cytokinesis in Animal and Plant
Cells
• In animal cells begins during anaphase as a cleavage
furrow, an indentation of the membrane.
– Actin filaments contracts until the cytoplasm is separated
between the two daughter cells
• For plants it forms a cell plate (from vesicles that
transport cell material)
 Cleavage
furrow

Cleavage furrow Contracting ring of

microfilaments

Daughter cells
 Wall of Cell plate Daughter
parent cell forming nucleus

Cell wall New cell wall

Vesicles containing Cell plate Daughter cells

cell wall material
 Cell Cycle Checkpoints
• The cell cycle has checkpoints that control
the progression of the cell cycle
• G1 checkpoint is important because passing this
point commits the cell to division - if DNA
damaged apoptosis can occur
• G2 checkpoint is the point at which the cell cycle
pauses until DNA replication has been completed
• M checkpoint mitosis when division pauses until
the chromosomes are distributed accurately to the
daughter cells
 G1 checkpoint
G0

Control
system S
G1

M G2

M checkpoint

G2 checkpoint
 The Cell Cycle and Cancer
• Cancer Cells
– Cancer cells divide rapidly and escape controls of the cell cycle
– They spread to other tissues through the circulatory system
– Growth is not inhibited by other cells, and tumors form
– Benign tumors remain at the original site
– Malignant tumors spread to other locations by metastasis
• How do we treat cancers?
• The regulation of the cell cycle is lost and uncontrolled cell division
occurs
• Cancers are classified by their location
– Carcinomas are cancers of the organs
– Sarcomas are cancers of the muscles
– Leukemias are cancers of the blood
 Somatic Cells
– Somatic cells have pairs of homologous chromosomes,
receiving one member of each pair from each parent
– Homologous chromosomes are matched in
– Length
– Centromere position
– Gene locations
– A locus (plural, loci) is the position of a gene
– Different versions of a gene may be found at the same locus on
maternal and paternal chromosomes

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 Autosomes & Sex Chromosomes
– The human sex chromosomes X and Y differ in size and
genetic composition
– Pairs of autosomes have the same size and genetic
composition
– Applying Your Knowledge
– Humans have 46 chromosomes; how many homologous pairs
does that represent?
– If there is one pair of sex chromosomes, how many pairs of
autosomes are found in humans?

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 Homologous pair of
chromosomes

Centromere

Sister chromatids One duplicated

chromosome
 Meiosis
• The homologous set of chromosomes is called the
diploid number (46)
• The number of chromosome pairs an organism has is its
haploid number (23)
• Meiosis occurs in the sex organs producing gametes
(which one are these?) – sperm and egg
 Haploid gametes (n = 23)

n
Egg cell
n
Sperm cell
Meiosis Fertilization

Diploid
zygote
(2n = 46) 2n
Multicellular
diploid adults
(2n = 46)

Mitosis and
development
 The Human Life Cycle
• In males, meiosis is part of sperm production
(spermatogenesis)
• In females, meiosis is part of egg production (oogenesis)
• During fertilization, an egg and sperm unite to form a
zygote, restoring the chromosomes to 46 total
 Overview of Meiosis
• Meiosis involves two cellular divisions
– Meiosis I
– Meiosis II
• These two cellular divisions produce four daughter cells,
each with one chromosome of each pair
 The Phases of Meiosis
• The same four stages of mitosis occur during meiosis
– Prophase
– Metaphase
– Anaphase
– Telophase
• The four stages occur twice, once during meiosis I and
again during meiosis II
 MEIOSIS I: Homologous chromosomes separate

INTERPHASE PROPHASE I METAPHASE I ANAPHASE I

Centrosomes Microtubules Metaphase Sister chromatids

(with centriole Sites of crossing over
attached to plate remain attached
pairs)
Spindle kinetochore

Nuclear Sister Tetrad Centromere

Homologous
envelope Chromatin chromatids (with kinetochore) chromosomes separate
 MEIOSIS II: Sister chromatids separate

TELOPHASE II TELOPHASE II
PROPHASE I METAPHASE II ANAPHASE II
AND CYTOKINESIS AND CYTOKINESIS

Cleavage
furrow

Sister chromatids Haploid daughter

separate cells forming
 Mitosis vs. Meiosis
– Which characteristics are similar for mitosis and
meiosis?
– One duplication of chromosomes
– Which characteristics are unique to meiosis?
– Two divisions of chromosomes
– Pairing of homologous chromosomes
– Exchange of genetic material by crossing over
– What is the outcome of each process?
– Mitosis: two genetically identical cells, with the same
chromosome number as the original cell
– Meiosis: four genetically different cells, with half the
chromosome number of the original cell
 MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Parent cell Site of MEIOSIS I
(before chromosome duplication) crossing over

Prophase I
Prophase
Tetrad formed
Duplicated by synapsis of
Chromosome Chromosome
chromosome homologous
duplication duplication
(two sister chromosomes
chromatids) 2n = 4

Chromosomes Tetrads
Metaphase align at the Metaphase I
align at the
metaphase plate metaphase plate

Anaphase Anaphase I
Telophase Sister chromatids
Homologous Telophase I
separate during
anaphase chromosomes
separate
(anaphase I); Haploid
sister chroma- n=2
tids remain Daughter
together cells of
meiosis I
No further
2n 2n chromosomal MEIOSIS II
Daughter cells duplication;
of mitosis sister
chromatids
separate n n n n
(anaphase II) Daughter cells of meiosis II
 Abnormal sex chromosomes
number
• Down syndrome is trisomy for chromosome 21
• A Turner syndrome female has monosomy for the sex
chromosomes (XO)

• A person with Klinefelter syndrome is an XXY male

Down Syndrome – trisomy for chromosome 21