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The following components can be found in air handling units.
¦½an sections for supply air and return air/relief air fans.
¦Heating section for hot water or steam coils a gas heat exchanger or an electrical
coil.
¦Air mixing sections for outdoor air to mix with recirculated air.
¦Other components for electrical power controls operating a motor, drainage etc.
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Heat transfer occurs at the heat exchange section of the air hauling unit. Several
heating and cooling media are common including water, steam, refrigerant and
electric.
G
are the most common components for transferring heat with
circulating air. Coils are normally constructed of copper tubes and aluminium fins.
A special coating and special materials such as stainless steel may be appropriate
for corrosive environments including salt spray and industrial pollution.
The performance of a water coil depends on the arrangement of the fin tubes
which can either be staggered or stacked. ½in tubes are great for increasing heat
transfer through the addition of fins onto tubes, which increase heat transfer
surface area.
The number or rows of fin tubes can also increase the performance of the water
coil.
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are similar to water coils but their design is to ensure easy drainage of
condensate.
may be designed as part of the air handling unit. The heating
elements are usually made from a nickel chromium alloy. Electrical coils have very
low resistance to airflow so higher velocities can be used than water or steam
coils.
When the cooling medium is a refrigerant, the cooling coil is designed to allow
refrigerant to vaporize in the coil, thus absorbing heat from the air. These types of
systems are normally called
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Air in urban environments contain impurities in the form of gas, liquid and solid
particulates. Many of these particulates are classified as pollutants such as smog,
smoke and pollen. In addition the air may contain bacteria and viruses which are
all detrimental to health.
1.Efficiency
2.Resistance to airflow
3.Dust holding capacity.
To rate the efficiency of air filters, four types of tests are performed.
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Dust weight arrestance test. The particles of synthetic dust of various sizes are fed
into the air cleaner (filter) and the fraction of weight of the dust removed is
determined.
Dust spot efficiency test. Atmospheric dust is passed into the air cleaner and the
discoloration is observed.
½ractional efficiency or penetration test. Uniform sized particles are fed into the air
cleaner and the percentage removed by the cleaner is determined.
Particle size efficiency test. Atmospheric dust is fed into the air cleaner and air
samples taken upstream and downstream are counted to determine the efficiency
of removal of each size particle.
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Typical types of air filters.
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3. ½or hazardous materials
4. ½or odor removal ʹ adsorption type filters are used to remove gaseous
contaminants from the airstream (HEPA).
Air mixing is an important component where the outside air required for
ventilation of a building is usually ducted to the inlet of an air handling unit by
mixing with return air. The 2 airstreams must be balanced with dampers to
introduce sufficient outside air for ventilation but not so much as to require
excessive condition during extreme weather.
The mixing box section of the air-handling unit must be carefully designed to
prevent stratification of cold outside air in winter which can freeze the tubes
of coils. Low airflow into mixing boxes in cold weather results in low velocity
through the mixing sections, stratification of cold air and the risk of freezing
the coils.
Large airflow can over pressurise a building unless relieving of this air can occur.
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To channel the air from the air handling unit, ductwork forms part of the air
handling system and includes the supply, return, outside air, relief air and exhaust
air ducts. Ducts are usually fabricated from sheet metal such as galvanised steel
aluminium or stainless steel, thus ductwork is also called sheet metal work
although some can be made from plastics.
Duct systems for supplying air may be classified as low pressure /velocity, medium
pressure/velocity and high pressure/velocity. ½or a given airflow, lower velocities
reduce friction in the duct and power for distribution. In addition lower velocities
reduce air noise.
Low velocity ductwork is used for small airflow requirements generally at final
branches of a system. It can also be used for large air quantities where space is
available for larger ductwork and the initial cost for the extra duct material is
warranted.
Higher velocity flow is generally used for conserving space and duct materials.
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4.1 Domestic Water Distribution Systems
1.Plumbing facilities
2.½ood service ʹ preparation, refrigeration, washing, dining, etc.
3.Laundry
4.Heating and cooling systems
5.Exterior ʹ lawn and plant irrigation, reflecting pools, fountains, hoses, etc.
6.Pools
7.Research and Process ʹ lab equipment, commercial and industrial processes,
computer equipment
8.½ire protection (if combined with a domestic system)
9.Others
The required water capacity of a building depends on the coincidental peak load
demand (CPLD) of all load categories based on an assumed time of day in the
heavy demand season.
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4.1 Domestic Water Distribution Systems
½or example the highest CPLD for an office building would be noontime in the
summer when the building is fully occupied, plumbing facilities are in heavy use
and air conditioning is near its peak.
Water demand for plumbing facilities depends on the number and type of fixtures
actually involved. Each plumbing fixture is assigned a water supply fixture unit
(wsfu) rating representing the relative water demand for its intended operating
functions.
½or example a lavatory that does not demand a heavy flow of water is given a wsfy
of 1 and a flush valve operated water closet that demands a heavy flow of water is
given a wsfu of 10.
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4.1 Domestic Water Distribution Systems
Example 4.1
Example 4.2
½or the office building in the example above, what is the estimated demand for
cold water in GPM?
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4.1 Domestic Water Distribution Systems
Water demand for food services varies considerably between residential and
commercial equipment. In general, food preparation and cooking does not require
much water. The major demand for water is for washing in sinks or dishwashers.
Water demand for laundry also varies between residential and commercial
equipment.
Heating and cooling systems are closed circuit systems that do not require
constant water replacement
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4.1 Domestic Water Distribution Systems
Example 4.3
I½ the office building in example 4.1 has a gross floor area of 25000 sq ft and a
100-ton chiller is installed, what are the water demands for the cooling system and
the annual water consumption if the system operates 12 hours a day for 200 days?
You may assume that the circulating rate of the condensing water is 3 GPM/ton
with 4% of water makeup
Water usage for exteriors depends on the size of the lot and the portion that is
landscaped.
Swimming pools vary widely in size from residential pools to Olympic sized pools.
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4.1 Domestic Water Distribution Systems
Example 4.4
If a swimming pool contains 100000 gallons of water and the circulating pump is
designed to change the water in 6 hours, what is the capacity of the pump and
what is the water demand load for makeup? You may assume that the demand
load for makeup water is 2% of the pump circulation rate.
The use of water for research and processing in special buildings could be very
high.
Normally the water supply for fire protection systems is not included in the
domestic water system, however 2 components of a fire protection system may be
combined with the domestic water system.
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4.1 Domestic Water Distribution Systems
Example 4.5
If the office building in example 4.1 is required to have one standpipe (fire pipe ʹ
500 GPM) and two rooms with 15 sprinklers each what demand load should be
included in the domestic water system.
Example 4.6
½or the office building in example 4.1, estimate the gross and net system demand
flowrate by considering the calculation you have performed in the previous
examples.
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4.1 Domestic Water Distribution Systems
Pressure drops can occur in pipes. The pressure losses can be due to friction.
Pressure losses in pipe fittings such as elbows, tees, valves and controls are
significantly higher that in straight pipes. The pressure losses for fittings and
devices is given in the unit of equivalent lengths (EL).
Example 4.7
If the most remote part of the plumbing system for the commercial building is
about 200 ft from the service entrance, what is the pressure loss due to the piping
system?
You may assume that the EL for this pipe system is 100 ft.
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4.1 Domestic Water Distribution Systems
Water required at floors higher that the water service entrance to the building
must overcome the force of gravity which provides static pressure owing to the
difference in elevation. ½rom simple units of conversion, 1 psi = 2.31 ft w.c. Thus a
building 231 ft high the plumbing fixtures on the top floor will require 100 psi of
static water pressure to reach that elevation.
Example 4.8
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4.1 Domestic Water Distribution Systems
Normally the flow pressure of underground water mains is made available from
the water utility company.
Example 4.9
If the water pressure available at the water main is 60 psi how can the commercial
building requiring a water pressure of 100 psi be served?
Since the pressure at the mains is only 60 psi and the building requires 100 psi due
to its height, the water pressure would need to be boosted or the requirement
must be reduced. To boost the pressure, pumps are inserted into the system at the
base or the upper floor levels. Booster pressure = 40 psi.
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@ ½
Roof 30X50 81
Walls
North 11X50 15
South 11X50 26
East 11X30 37
West 11X30 19
Doors
North 3X7 21
East 3X7 28
Windows
North (3) 5X5 0.65 28
South (4) 5X5 0.65 29
East (1) 5X5 0.65 26
West (2) 5X5 0.65 216
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3. Describe what are water coil, steam coil, DX coil and electrical coil systems.
4. What are the 3 major characteristics of filters and how can filters be tested for
their efficiency?
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What is the capacity, static pressure and horsepower if the speed is decreased to
123 rpm?
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4.1 Domestic Water Distribution Systems
The design of the hot water system is very similar to that of a cold
water system but with several added condsiderations.
The demand flow rate (GPM) of hot water stays the same for a
particular application however the amount of water used depends
on the length of time one uses hot water.
4.1 Domestic Water Distribution Systems
½or residential usage the hot water storage tank is usually kept at
130 to 140o½ and mixed with cold water and is normally between
100 to 110o½. Water for washing dishes and clothing in a residence is
satisfactory at 140o½ whereas 180o½ is required for commercial
applications. The higher the water temperatures, the larger the
number of booster heaters required.
½or urinals, siphon jet, blow out and wash down varieties are
available. They are also either wall mounted or floor mounted.
Stainless steel sinks are preferred because they are durable and easy
to clean. They are mounted to the floor, wall or a recess in the floor
and they can also be made of enameled cast iron, precast terrazzo,
or reinforced glass fiber.
4.2 Plumbing ½ixtures and Components
Bathtubs are made of cast iron, porcelian enamel on pressed steel
or fiberglass reinforced plastics.
ͻ To protect water resources and the greater environment, all waste from
buildings and industrial processes must be treated to meet certain
standards of quality. Domestic sewage from dwellings and DWV systems
in buildings are permitted to be discharged into the public sewer system
which provides the necessary treatment prior to its discharge in nature.
4.4 Sewage Treatment and Disposal
ͻ
Watertight tank that receives influent from a DWV
system designed to separate solids from the liquids to digest organic
matter through a period of detention and to discharge the effluent
to an approved method of disposal.
ͻ
½ormation of layers of heavy particulates in the
influent.
ͻ @
Digestion of the waste through the
natural bacterial digestive action in a septic tank or digestion
chamber.
ͻ @
Sewage sediment, rich in destructive bacteria that can
be used to break down fresh sewage more quickly.
ͻ
Component of the septic tank system that
periodically discharges effluent to an approved method of disposal.
4.4 Sewage Treatment and Disposal
ͻ ½
Means of filtering out any solid matter from the effluent.
ͻ
Process to disinfect the effluent with chemicals.
ͻ
½low or trickling of a liquid downward through a filtering
medium or soil.
ͻ
Set of trenches containing open ended
or perforated pipes designed to allow the treated effluents to
porcelate into the ground.
ͻ The sewage treatment process can be divided into three major
steps.
1. Primary treatment which is subdivided into 2.
ͻ
Raw sewage is retained for the
preliminary separation on indigestible solids and the start of aerobic
action.
4.4 Sewage Treatment and Disposal
ͻ @
Introduction of air through natural convection or
mechanical blowers to accelerate the decomposition of organic
matter.
ͻ
Removal of scum that floats on top of partially treated
sewage.
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The disinfection of effluent by the addition of
chemicals such as chlorine.
4.4 Sewage Treatment and Disposal
ͻ Rather than a sewage treatment plant, the septic tank system is most
commonly used in rural areas for small capacity applications. It consists
of a septic tank serving as primary treatment and a methof of filtering
the effluent as secondary treatment. See ½igure 8.33 pp 278.
ͻ To design a septic tank system, the analysis if the sewage load based on
the number of occupants in and type of occupancy of the building on a
24 hours basis.
ͻ The required size for septic tank for use in residences is determined
from either the number of fixture units (dfu) served or the number
of bedrooms in the residence.
ͻ The drain field must include drainage trenches that comply with:
ͻ Trench construction
ͻ Drain till size
ͻ Trench slope
ͻ Trench depth
ͻ Trench width
ͻ Trench spacing
ͻ Length of trench
4.4 Sewage Treatment and Disposal
ͻ Roof drain
ͻ Area drain
ͻ Conductor or downspout (installed in the interior)
ͻ Gutter
ͻ Leader
ͻ Subsoil drain
ͻ Controlled storm drainage system
ͻ Primary drainage system
ͻ Secondary drainage system (in case of heavy downflow)
ͻ Sump
ͻ Sump pump
ͻ Projected roof or horizontal projected roof area
4.5 Strom Drainage System
ͻ The size of the system will depend on the rate of rainfall rather
that the total rainfall in a day or a year. The rate of rainfall varies
with intensity and frequency of occurrence.
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5.1 Classification of ½ire and Construction Hazards
1. Light (low) hazard. Locations (buildings or rooms) where the total amount of
Class A combustible materials, including furnishings, decorations, and other
contents, is a minor. Among these locations are offices, classrooms etc.
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5.1 Classification of ½ire and Construction Hazards
¦ The requirements for fire protection in a building also are governed by how the
building is being used or occupied.
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5.1 Classification of ½ire and Construction Hazards
¦ The requirements for fire protection in a building also are governed by how the
building is being used or occupied.
¦ Group A : Assembly
¦ Group B : Business
¦ Group E : Educational
¦ Group ½ : ½actory
¦ Group H : Hazard
¦ Group I : Institutional
¦ Group M : Mercantile
¦ Group R : Residential
¦ Group S : Storage
¦ Group U : Utility
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5.2 Planning for ½ire Protection
¦ Planning for fire protection starts with architectural and engineering design in
all disciplines.
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5.2 Planning for ½ire Protection
3B, main effort. ½ire suppression systems, such as automatic sprinklers, fire
hoses and other systems are used to extinguish the fire and smoke control
systems are activated to remove or contain the spread of smoke.
3C, last effort. The fire department takes over the firefighting effort when all
previous efforts are ineffective.
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5.3 ½ire Safety Design
3. Length of travel. All exits shall be located so that the maximum length of travel
to access the exit measured from the most remote point to an approved exit
along the natural and unobstructed line of travel shall not exceed certain
distances.
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5.3 ½ire Safety Design
4. Mean of egress. There shall be two separate means of egress from any space
except where a space is so small and arranged in such a way that a second exit
would not provide an appreciable increase in safety.
5. Exit enclosures. Exit enclosures such as stairways used for exit purposes shall
be separated from other portions of the building by appropriate fire resistive
construction. Penetration by ducts, conduits, boxes and pipes shall be limited
and protected.
7. Vertical openings (other than elevator shafts). Vertical openings shall be sealed
to limit fires to a single floor.
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5.3 ½ire Safety Design
10.Compliance with code requirements for specific use groups. The classification
is generally consistent with that of other building codes.
11.Coordination with fire department. The fire marshals must be consulted about
the required access to the building and the locations of fire hoses, fire
hydrants, electrical power disconnects, fire suppression and alarm systems.
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5.4 ½ire Detection and Signaling Devices
¦ Thermal detectors are temperature activated sensors that initiate and alarm
when the temperature in their immediate vicinity reaches a predetermined
setting. Some common types are as follows.
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5.4 ½ire Detection and Signaling Devices
¦ Smoke detectors are quicker to respond than thermal detectors as long as the
smoke generated by the fire is within the limits of detectability.
Photoelectric type
Ionization type
¦ ½lame detectors are used to detect the direct radiation of a flame in the visible,
infrared and ultraviolet ranges of the spectrum.
¦ Signal devices are audio and video devices used to alert and inform of an
emergency situation.
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5.4 ½ire Detection and Signaling Devices
Single stroke bell, vibrating bell, buzzer, chime, horn, siren, light signal, etc.
¦ ½low detectors are devices that indicate or initiate an alarm when water is
flowing in the fire suppression system.
¦ Visual annunciation devices are displays that may consist of single or multiple
lights with marked messages such as ͞½ire͟, ͞½ire Escape͟ or ͞Go to Area B͟.
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5.5 Automatic Sprinkler Systems
1. A nozzle
2. A heat detector
3. A water spray pattern deflector
¦ The fusible link type of heat detector is constructed of an eutectic alloy which
melts at a specific temperature rather than gradually softening. When the link
temperature reaches its melting point the link is pulled apart by the water
pressure and opens the nozzle. The frangible bulb type of detector contains a
glass bulb partially filled with a liquid that expands with temperature. At the
rated temperature the liquid will shatter the bulb and enter the nozzle.
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5.5 Automatic Sprinkler Systems
¦ The hear sensing elements of a sprinkler may be fusible links or frangible bulbs.
Or the sprinkler may be the open type or the dry type.
¦ The flow rate of the sprinkler depends on the size of its orifice and the residual
pressure of the water supply.
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5.5 Automatic Sprinkler Systems
¦ There are numerous kinds of automatic sprinkler systems, each ideally suited
for certain spaces. Two major varieties are:
¦ A dry pipe system is a piping system filled with compressed air (or nitrogen).
The air pressure prevents water from entering the pipes beyond a control valve
known as a dry pipe valve.
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5.5 Automatic Sprinkler Systems
¦ A preaction system is a dry pipe sprinkler system filled with air and having a
supplemental detection system installed in the same area.
¦ A deluge system is a dry sprinkler system equipped with open type sprinklers
(no fusible links).
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