COMPUTER

SOFTWARE AND
SYSTEMS
 A. Computer Software
 Software is the general term applied to the
instructions that direct the computer’s
hardware to perform work
 Software consists of instruction communicated
electronically to the hardware

2 Purposes of the Software

1. It is needed to translate instructions created
in human language to machine language
2. Packaged or stored software is needed to
make the computer an economical work tool
Programs -organized instruction sets supplied to
the software

Package – a set of related programs

 B. Brief History of
Computer Programming
& Software
1800’s – idea of having computer programs stored on a
hard drive and brought into memory at the user’s
command

Augusta Ada Byron – first described the concept of a stored

computer program

Charles Babbage – invented the analytical machine

Countess Lovelace – she theorized the “loop concept”, it is

the use of automatic repetitious arithmetic steps to solve a
problem; she is also the “first programmer”
Robert Von Newmann – proposed that both data and
instructions could be automatically carried on

Joseph Jacquard – invented the “Jacquard Loom” used to blocks

of wood with holes drilled in such a way that the threads to be
woven into cloth could form a program

Herman Hollerith (1884) – developed a machine that could

read punch cards and tabulate the results
• Punch Card Method existed until the late 19600’s while in
many computer centers use the method until around 1980
Rear Admiral Grace Murray Hopper – “the mother of
computing” because she developed many of the concepts
and mathematical foundations of computer programming
science; worked with Mark I, the first digital Computer;
also coined the term “debugging”

1950’s – foundation of common business-oriented language

(COBOL) which is the first “universal” programming
language and first truly English-like language
 C. Types of
Software
1.System Software – “boots up” the computer system
(starts up and initializes); controls input, output and
storage; and controls the operations of the application
software

BASIC INPUT OUTPUT SYSTEM (BIOS) – the software on

the BIOS chip is the first part of the computer to function when
the computer is turned on

OPERATING SYSTEMS (OS) – are the actual software loaded

from the hard rive into RAM as soon as the computer is turned
on
 USER INTERFACES

a. Disk Operating System (DOS OS) – designed for

mainframe computers and replicated the procedures
programmers used under manual OSs

b. Graphical User Interface (GUI) – the computer for

everybody, “Macintosh”

2. Applications Software – support the actual wok of

the user; includes the various programs people use to
do work process data, play games, communicate with
others, or watch multimedia programs
3. Utility Programs – used to help maintain the system,
clean up unwanted programs, protect the system against
various attacks, access the World Wide Web (WWW), and
the like
- designed to enhance the functions of the OS or perhaps to
add facilities that the basic OS does not offer

• Language Translation Utilities – translation programs

are needed to convert instructions written in an English-
like language into binary. These types of translation
programs are called assemblers, compilers, or
interpreters

• The World Wide Web and Web Browsers – WWW

provides a protocol for document transfer across the
internet; a Web Browser is a utility program that
allows the user to access the web and the materials
available through the web
Programming Languages – means of communicating with
the computer

Generations and Levels of Programming Languages

• Divided into 5 generations, or in sometimes at 3 levels
• Level refers to how close the language is to the actual
machine

1. First Level (includes the first 2 generations of

programming: machine language and assembly language)

2. Second Level (includes high-level procedural and

nonprocedural languages)

3. Third Level (includes natural language; also the 5th

generation)
  Machine Language – true language of the
computer

 Assembler Language – far more English-like, but

still very close to machine language

 Third Generation Languages – include the

procedural and nonprocedural languages and were
the beginning of the second level in programming
languages; the style and sequence of a language
are called “syntax”

 Visual Programming Languages – facilitate program

development in graphics-based environments

 Fourth Generation Languages – specialized application
programs that require more involvement of the user in directing
the program to do necessary work

 Fifth Generation Languages – or “third level languages” are

also called “natural language”; user tells the machine what to do
in the user’s own natural language or through the use of a set of a
very English-like commands
 D. Common Software
Packages for
Microcomputers
Standard Office Package - most common package sold
with computers; includes a word-processing program, a
spreadsheet, a presentation graphics program, and some
form of data-base management system

2 Most Commonly Used Programs

1. E-mail Systems
2. Word Processor
 E. Software Package
Ownership Rights
 The software industry has followed an ownership model more
similar to that of the book publishing industry, in order to avert
users not to distribute the programs

 When a commercial product is sold, the buyer can not use the
product or resell it or loan it to a friend if so desired

 Copying the product is not feasible

 Any other installations, apart from the original purchaser’s, were

considered illegal

 An exception can be made if the purchaser has both a desktop and

a laptop, fair use allow him to install programs on all the machines
he owns, so long as the computers are for his personal use only
 Companies that have multiple computers that are used by
many employees must purchase a separate copy for each
machine, or purchase a “site license” (a way of buying in
bulk or so to speak)

 What is not permitted, in fact a from of theft, is to install

more copies of the software than were paid for
 F. Common Software
Useful to Nurses
Software used by nurses includes admission, discharge,
and transfer (ADT) systems that help with patient
tracking, and medication administration record (MAR)
software

 Computer Physician Order Entry (CPOE) is also

considered, a system to be so important that they list it as
a separate item on their quality checklist

 Chat Rooms – are like electronic conference calls

 Electronic Bulletin Boards – creates space where users

can post a message

 List Servers – the least powerful version of an electronic

bulletin board
 G. Computer
Programming
 Refers to the process of writing a computer program,
which is a series of instructions written in proper
sequence to solve a problem

5 Major Steps
 Problem Definition (functional specifications

 Program Design

 Writing the Code and Program Documentation

 Alpha Testing

 Beta Testing and Program Documentation

Problem or Functions Specification – requires that the

problem or task be very precisely defined and the
procedures to be performed by the program be perfectly
misunderstood into the programming language to be used
Program Design Specifications
2 Types of specifications
1. Set of functional specifications that identifies all the
functions the
program is to perform
2. (“SPECS”) Design specs – instructions given to the
programmer

Program Preparation - the actual writing (coding) of the program,

entails translating the design specifications into the programming
language to be used

Documentation

2 Types of Documentation that Must be Produced

1. The program itself should be designed in a highly structured,
top-down manner, and the lines of the code should be liberally
sprinkled with explanatory statements
 2. User’s Manual – provides clear directions and examples of
how to make
the program work as intended

Program Testing

 Alpha Testing – also called “desk checking”, its purpose is

to see if all the processes appear to be functioning as
specified in the flow charts, functional specifications, and
design specs
 Beta Testing – the program is installed in the actual user
environment, and further programming of screen formats
and other user interface functions is performed

Program Implementation – the final step in programming;

the program is implemented throughout the beta site
 H. Computer Systems

 It is a complex entity, consisting of an organized

set of interconnected components or factors that
function together as a unit to accomplish results
that one part alone could not
 I. Systems Theory
 Provides the conceptual basis for understanding complex
entities that consist of multiple interrelated parts working
together to achieve a desired result. Such entities are
called “systems”

Primary Propositions of the Theory

1. A system takes in input on which to perform processes

2. The processes performed by a system on input result in

system output

3. The processes in a system are subject to control forces

4. Feedback is the key mechanism of control in a system

5. A system’s parts interact in such a way that the parts are
interdependent with the respect to the system’s processes

6. Impingement on one part in a system will produce effects on the

system’s processes and may produce distortions on the other parts
of the system. A corollary to this proposition is the following

7. Distortion in one part of a system may be a symptom of a problem

in another component (Secondary Malfunction)

8. Thus, correction of a malfunctioning part will correct the system

functioning only if the malfunction was a primary malfunction and
not a secondary malfunction

9. Effects on the system’s processing function will affect the system’s

output
10. A system is more than the sum of its parts. Thus, while a
system can be broken down into its component parts, if this
is done, the system no longer exists. Corollaries to this
proposition are the following:

(a) The functioning of a system is different than the

functioning of its parts

(b) The output of each separate part, even if combined, does

not equal the output of the system

(c) When combined into a system, the component parts form

an entirely new entity
 J. System Elements
1. Interdependent Parts – the most defining attribute of a
system is that its parts interact to conduct some process

2. Input – is any factor from the external environment that is

taken into the system

3. Process – the activity of the system

4. Output – any product or waste produced as a result of

system process

5. Control – refers to any component or activity that serves to

prevent or correct problems or errors in the system’s input,
process, output

6. Feedback – is output from one part of a system process that

serves as input to another part of a system process
 K. Classification of
Systems
 Closed Systems – a system with the following
characteristics: differentiation, isolation, independence,
and self-sufficiency (self-containment or self-regulation)

 Open Systems – systems that exhibit integration, fluid

or fuzzy boundaries, and interaction with their
environments (Markas, 2002)
 Post-surgical
infections in
State health hospital
outcomes database
database &
benchmark file

CDC
infectious
disease
database
CDC co-funded Hospital
university study of consortium
incidence of infections in database
5-state region

Figure 5.8
Open System Interactions
Figure 5.7
Closed system with feedback loop

IV CPU

Measure blood
BP too
pressure every 30
high
minutes

Yes
No

Administer ordered
dose of
antihypertensive
 L. Computer Systems

 Used to describe the set of

peripherals, computer “box”,
and software that together
perform computing functions
for one or more users
 M. Information Systems
 The collection and integration of various pieces of hardware
and software and the human resources that meet the data
collection, storage, processing, and report generation needs of
an organization

Information System Types

1. Management Information Systems – an organized
system for managing the flow of information in an organization
in a timely manner

2. Bibliographic Retrieval Systems – a retrieval system that

generally refers to bibliographic data, document information, or
literature

3. Stand-Alone, dedicated, or Turnkey Systems –

developed for a single application or set of functions
4. Transaction Systems – used to process predefined transactions
and produce predefined reports

5. Physiologic Monitoring Systems – are being used more

frequently to measure and monitor continuous automatic
physiologic findings; provide alarms to detect significant
abnormal findings when personnel are needed to provide patient
care and save lives

6. Decision Support Systems – support some aspect of the

human decision-making process

7. Expert Systems – contain the information and decision-making

strategies of an expert to assist non-experts in decision-making
(Marakas, 2003); designed for users to stimulate the cause and
effect reasoning that an expert would use if fronted with the
same situation in a real live environment
8. Artificial Intelligence Systems – (AI System) attempts
to model human reasoning processes

9. Natural Language Systems – can understand and

process commands given in the user’s own natural, spoken
language
N. Hospital Information
Systems (HIS)
 Sometimes called a medical
information system (MIS) or
patient care system (PCS),
provides support for a wide
range of both administrative
and clinical functions; the
purpose of an HIS is to
manage information needed to
facilitate daily hospital
operations by all health care
personnel
HIS Configurations – the most common configuration uses a
mainframe computer with hardwired terminals or workstations

Program Modules Available in HIS – include a wide variety of

administrative applications (modules) such as admission and
discharge, patient tracking, finance, payroll, billing, budgeting
support, inventory, and management reporting programs

Semiclinical Modules

2 Modules

1. ADT -module monitors and sometimes controls the flow of

patients in a hospital from admission to discharge

2. OE – the “order-entry-results-reporting” module; order entry

means that staff can enter laboratory, pharmacy, and radiology
orders online; means that the lab, pharmacy, and radiology can
enter the results in a computer system and have those available
to the nursing unit
Clinical Support Modules
 Charting Systems – includes medical administration
reports, admission assessments, special assessments, at
least some elements of nursing care plan, vital signs records,
wound care, and hygienic care records

 Point-of-Service Systems (POS) – uses a hand-held or

bedside PC to ensure that data are entered at the point at
which they are collected

 Laboratory, Pharmacy, and Radiology Modules – tracks

the specimen through various laboratory stages, generates
the results, and communicates the findings to patient’s
medical record; tracks medication orders and changes in
orders; separate products developed by companies that
specialize in diagnostic computer imaging systems
O. Network Systems

 A network is a set of
interconnected computers that,
through hardware and software
technology, work cooperatively
for the purpose of information
and application program
interchange
2 Essential Factors for Any Network
• Hardware
• Network Communication Software

Advantages to Companies
1. Efficiencies Related to Storage and Data Integrity
2. Software Savings
3. Savings in Human Time and Efficiency
Network Functions
1. File transfer
2. Information availability
3. Resource sharing
4. Online transaction
5. Provision of a powerful communication medium
6. Interactive environment
7. Education and Entertainment
8. E-mail

Network Security

 Vacuum Tubes were vulnerable to heat and dirt. Therefore,

mainframe computer systems required a closed, air-
conditioned environment

 Electronic security is even more important

 Password protection can be enough security for most
systems, provided that people give their passwords the
proper handling and respect

 Firewalls are specialized routers that carefully inspect

each incoming packets of information

 Encryption, another layer of protection, means that the

data are converted into a cipher, or a code of some kind

Types of Networks

1. Local Area Network (LAN) – a data network

intended to serve a single building or a group of buildings
in close proximity to each other

2. Wide Area Network (WAN) – system of connected

computers spanning a large geographical area, often a
continent or country
3. The Internet – is a network of networks
 Navigating the Internet: In order to enter
the Internet, the user must have an Internet
Service Provider (ISP) and a Web Browser

Popular Search Engines

• 1. Altavista
• 2. Yahoo!
• 3. Google
• 4. 37.com
• 5. Go2net
 Web Browser – is a program that is used to visit Web
pages; it works by using a special protocol called HTTP

 World Wide Web – is a hypertext-based, subset of the

Internet that uses a combination of text, graphics, audio,
and video to provide information on almost every subject
imaginable

 Hypertext Markup Language – the language used to

create hypertext documents

 Hypertext and Hyperlinks – hypertext is a document,

written in HTML, which contains automated links
(hyperlinks) to other documents, which may or may not also
be hypertext documents
THE END
PRESENTED BY:
RALPH P. LLANES JR., S.N
BSN II-1
SUMMER 2009-2010