DATA ANALYSIS

‡ converting data to information

* A well planned research includes a

properly planned method of analysis.
 2ranches
‡ Descriptive Statistics
methods applied in order to organize, summarize
and present data in a form which will make them
easier to analyze and interpret

‡ Inferential Statistics
methods involved in order to make generalizations
and conclusions about a target population, based
on results from a sample
 mARIA2LES

‡ A value of a characteristic that

changes from subject to subject
or from time to time
 Relationship 2etween
mariables
‡ Dependent mariable
² the outcome or response variable

‡ Independent mariable
² the variable that is presumed to influence the
outcome

‡ Confounding mariable
² an extraneous variable which by itself may
influence the outcome and which may be
mistaken to be the effect of the independent
variable being considered.
 Among nonsmoking pregnant women, is there an
association between elevated urinary cotinine (a
metabolic product of nicotine) levels and reduced birth
weight of newborn infants?

Dependent mariable
E birth weight of newborn infants

X Independent mariable
urinary cotinine level
A
M Confounding mariables
- maternal age, parity, socio-economic status, nutrition,
P illness

L
E
 Types of mariables

‡ Qualitative mariables
² categories are simply used as labels to distinguish
one group from another

‡ Quantitative mariables
² categories can be measured and ordered according
to quantity/amount

‡ Discrete Quantitative mariables

² can assume only integral values or whole numbers

‡ Continuous Quantitative mariables

² can attain any value including fractions or decimals
 Scales of Measurement

‡ Nominal Scale
² unordered categories

‡ Ordinal Scale
² ordered categories

‡ Interval Scale
² the exact distance between two categories can be
determined but the zero point is arbitrary

‡ Ratio Scale
² Similar to interval but the zero point is fixed
 ‡ Nutritional status
Nominal
normal or malnourished
Ordinal
E normal, mildly, moderately or severely malnourished
Ratio
X % of standard body weight

A ‡ Educational status
Nominal
M literate or illiterate
Ordinal
P none, elementary, high school or college

L Ratio
number of years in school
E
S
 INDICATORS

‡ Computed or collated collective

characteristics of the persons
making up the study population.
 Äinds of Indicators

‡ Parameters ² derived from the entire

population

‡ Statistics ² derived from a sample of

the population
Measures of Central Tendency

‡ Mean ² arithmetic average

‡ Median ² middle value

‡ Mode ² most frequently occurring

value
 ‡ Given the data:
9, 8, 10, 11, 12, 10, 9, 12, 8, 10, 11

Mean
(9+8+10+11+12+10+9+12+8+10+11) / 11
E = 10

X Median
A 8, 8, 9, 9, 10, 10, 10, 11, 11, 12, 12

M Mode
9, 8, 10, 11, 12, 10, 9, 12, 8, 10, 11
P
L
E
 Measures of mariation
‡ Range
² the difference between the highest observation and
the lowest observation
‡ mariance
² refers to how much the individual observations differ
from the mean
‡ Standard Deviation
² square root of the variance
‡ Coefficient of mariation
² Measures the relative dispersion which expresses the
standard deviation as a percentage of the mean
hrequency Distribution

‡ the proportion of subjects found in

the different classes of the
population
 Proportion, Ratio, Rate
‡ Proportion
² a / (a+b)
² e.g. proportion of patients cured
‡ Ratio
² a/b
² e.g. sex ratio = no. of males : no. of females
‡ Rate
² e.g. incidence rate = (no. of new cases over a period
of time/population at risk) x 100,000
 Èow is the method of data analysis
determined?

The method of data analysis that should be used for a

study depends on:

‡ the objectives and the research design

‡ the scale of measurement/type of data

 METÈODS Oh DATA ANALYSIS

‡ Descriptive Statistics
Ö Computations of indicators
- Measures of central tendency: mean, median, mode
- Measures of variation: range, standard deviation
- frequency/percentage distribution; rates, ratios
Ö Organizing, presenting & summarizing data in forms that
facilitate interpretation
‡ Inferential Statistics
Ö computations of indicators
Ö comparison of indicators
Ö test for significance of observed differences
Ö determination of degree of association
 SCÈEMA hOR DATA ANALYSIS

TO TEST
TO DESCRI2E EmENTS/
O2 ECTImE ÈYPOTÈESIS/
IDENTIhY RISÄ
INTERmENTION
hACTORS/CAUSES

ANALYTIC
RESEARCÈ
DESIGN DESCRIPTImE/
CROSS-SECTIONAL
INhERENTIAL
STATISTICS

TYPE Oh DESCRIPTImE INTERmAL/RATIO

ANALYSIS STATISTICS
NOMINAL/
ORDINAL
COMPUTATION
INTERmAL/ AND
SCALE Oh NOMINAL/
RATIO
MEASUREMENT ORDINAL COMPUTATION ‡ COMPARISON Oh
AND PROPORTIONS
+
COMPUTATION ‡ COMPARISON Oh ‡ MEAN & S.D.
Oh PROPORTIONS +
ANALYSIS COMPUTATION + ‡ TEST Oh
Oh Oh PROPORTIONS ‡ PROPORTIONS ‡ TEST Oh SIGNIhICANCE
INDICATORS (Rates, Ratios, + SIGNIhICANCE +
hrequency ‡ MEAN AND + ‡ DEGREE Oh
Distribution) S.D. ‡ DEGREE Oh CORRELATION
‡ASSOCIATION
 Criteria hor Selection Of A
Statistical Test

‡ Level of Measurement of the Data

² Nominal
² Ordinal
² Interval/Ratio
‡ Specific objectives to be attained
‡ Types of samples
‡ Assumptions of the test
Purpose for Doing the Test
‡ to determine if a sample could have come from a
population with a stipulated mean or proportion or
from a population of some pre-specified distribution
‡ comparison of two means or proportions
‡ comparison of more than two means or proportions
‡ determination of correlation or association between
variables
 Types of Samples
Ö Independent samples ² the elements in one
sample is not in any way influenced by the
characteristics of the elements selected in
the other sample.

Ö Paired or related samples ² samples which

are matched for certain variables
Assumptions of the test
‡ Random selection of the sample
‡ Normal distribution of the populations from
which the samples were drawn
‡ Equality of variances, when more than one
population is sampled (comparable level of
variability)
Two Äinds of Statistical Tests

Ö Parametric tests ² involves numerical data,

measured either on an interval or ratio
scale
Ö Non-Parametric tests ² involves data that
are not truly numerical being only on a
nominal or ordinal scale
 Measuring the Size of Difference

Nominal or Continuous
ordinal data data

Differences in Differences in mean

proportions or values between the
percentages in groups plus the
each category standard deviation for
each group
 Testing for Stat. Sig. of the Difference:
Nominal Data

Small, Small, Large, Large,

Independent paired independent paired
samples samples samples samples

hischer·s Sign test Chi Square McNemar·s

Exact test With Yates test
Correction*

The Chi Square method is used when comparing more than two
groups. Yates* correction is used only when comparing two
groups.
 Testing hor Stat. Sig. Of The Difference:
Ordinal Data

More than
One comparison One comparison
(two groups) (more than two groups)

Independent Independent
Paired Paired
samples samples
samples samples

Mann-Whitney U Wilcoxon Äruskal Wallis 1- hriedman 2-

or matched-pairs way analysis of way analysis of
Median test signed-ranks test variance variance
 Testing hor Stat. Sig. Of The Difference:
Continuous Data

More than
One comparison
One comparison
(two groups)
(more than two groups)

Independent Paired Independent Paired

samples samples samples samples

t-test for analysis t-test for analysis

of variance of variance with
Independent t- Paired followed by pair blocking or
test t-test wise comparison analysis of
comparison
 Measure of Degree of Association

Ordinal data or when no Continuous data

Nominal
linear relationship is When a linear
data
suspected Relationship
Is suspected

Odds ratio or Spearman·s

Pearson·s
relative risk; Rho or Äendall·s
correlation
phi-coefficient; tau
coefficient (r)
Cramer r
 ‡ Ten amputees were asked to evaluate the
acceptability of two models of leg prostheses.
Subjects were allowed to use Model A for 2 weeks and
they were asked to rate it as Poor, hair, or Excellent.
After a week·s rest, the subjects were allowed to try
on Model 2 and again were asked to rate it using the
E same scale.

X Scale of Measurement
A ordinal

M No. of Groups
two, related
P
Statistical Test
L Wilcoxon matched pairs signed ranks test

E
S
 ‡ Èypertensive patients consulting the OPD were asked
to participate in a chemical trial involving a new drug
that is claimed to be the best control for high blood
pressure. The patients were allocated to either
helodepine (test drug) or to Nifedipine (standard
drug). Patient·s blood pressure (mmÈg) were
E compared after two weeks of treatment.

X Scale of Measurement
interval
A
M No. of Groups
two, independent
P Statistical Test
L independent t-test

E
S
 Making the Conclusion

Condition Significance Decision Conclusion

p-value ” ý Test is Reject Èo Conclude Èa

significant

p-value > ý Test is not Do NOT Reject There is no

significant Èo sufficient
evidence to
conclude Èa
 Statistical Significance vs. Practical
Significance

‡ Practical Significance refers to the benefits

that may be derived from the application of
the knowledge or technology tested by the
study.

‡ Statistical Significance measures the

probability of accepting a wrong
hypothesis or of rejecting a true
hypothesis.