Organizational Behavior

ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR
Aug.03, 2010
GOOD JOB??
MANAGERS &
ORGANIZATIONS
INDIVIDUALS WHO ACHIEVE GOALS THROUGH OTHER PEOPLE
SOCIAL UNIT , COMPOSED OF TWO OR MORE PEOPLE , FUNCTIONING ON A RELATIVELY CONTIN

DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO WHAT
MANAGERS DO.
Henri Fayol, a frenchIndustrialist in the earlier twentieth century wrote about

‘MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS ’
In the late 1960s Henry Mintzberg, a graduate student of MIT, undertook a carefu
study of 5 executives came up with ‘MANAGEMENT ROLES ’
Robert Katz, another eminent Management exponent identified essential

‘MANAGEMENT SKILLS ’
MANAGEMENT ROLES : Henry
Mintzberg
INTERPERSONAL
INFORMATIONA
L
DECISION
AL
INTERPERSON
AL
FIGUREHEAD : Symbolic Head, required to perform a number of routine duties of

Legal or social nature.
LEADER: Responsible for the motivation & direction of employees
LIAISON : Maintain a network of outside contacts who provide favors & informatio
Back
INFORMATION
AL
Serves: as a nerve center of internal & external information of the

MONITOR
Organization
DISSEMINATOR
Transmits
: information received to the members of the organization
Transmits organization related information to outsiders. Consider

SPOKESPERSON :
An expert on organization’s industry.
BACK
MANAGEMENT SKILLS – Robert
Katz
TECHNICAL SKILLS
The ability
: to apply specialized knowledge or Expertise.
HUMAN SKILLS
Ability
: to work with, understand and motivate others both
Individually & in groups.
CONCEPTUAL SKILLS
Ability: to rationally process and interpret information
EFFECTIVE Vs SUCCESSFUL MANAGERS
AVERAGE SUCCESSFUL EFFECTIVE
19% 13 % 11%
32 % 19 %
3 48% 13 28 % 26 % 19
20 % 44 %
29 %
11 %
Traditional Mgt. Communication
Human Resource Mgt Networking
Successful
In terms
- of speed of promotions in their organization
Effective
In terms- of quantity, quality of work & the satisfaction & commitment of the
MAJOR DISCIPLINES & THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO OB
Personality / Leadership Effectiveness
Perception / Perf . Appraisal
Attitude / Employee Selection INDIVIDUAL
Psychology Learning / Work Design
Motivation / Work Stress
Job Satisfaction / Training
Group Dynamics / Leadership

Communication / Power & Politics
Conflict Mgt .
Sociology
Organizational Structures & Cultures
Formal & Informal Orgn .
Organizational Change GROUP Study Of OB
Social Behavioral & Attitude Change

Communication
Psychology Group Processes & Decision Making
Individual & Organl . Culture

Anthropology Orgnl . Environment .
Organizational Power ORGANIZATIONS

Politics
Political Science Conflicts
WHAT DO MANAGERS
DO?
PLANDefining goals, establishing strategy &developing plans to coordinate activit
ORGANIZE
What tasks are to be done, who will do them, how should the tasks be grouped, reporting, who w
LEAD employees,
Motivating directing others, effective communication, channels, & resolv
CONTROL
Monitoring activities to ensure that they are being accomplished as per plan & correct
BACK
Aug 17th for A,C & D Batches
OB MODELS
Models are abstraction of reality.
A simplified representation of some real world

phenomena.
An OB model provides framework about how people will be treated in an organizatio
OB Models are developed on the basis of management’s assumptions about people

And it’s own vision.
Assumptions vary to a great extent resulting in different OB models
Two alternative behavioral approaches have been

adopted -
OB MODELS
….contd.
In OB assumptions about people have been generally made on two extremes :
Ø McGregor’s Theory X & Theory Y of motivation

Ø Argyris’s concept of Immaturity & Maturity of people.
However, OB models in practice actually show some kind of continuum between the t
Opposite poles.
MODELS OF OB
Autocratic Custodial Supportive Collegial

Basis Of Model Power Economic Leadership Partnership
Resources
Managerial Authority Money Support Teamwork
Orientation
Employee Obedience Security & Job Responsible
Orientation Benefits performance behavior
Employee Dependence on Dependence on Participation Self discipline
Psychological boss organization
Employee
Result needsSubsistence Security Status & Self
met recognition actualization
Performance Minimum Passive Awakened Moderate
Result cooperation Drives enthusiasm
AUTOCRATIC
MODEL
Managerial orientation is towards power.
Authority is seen as the only means to get things done.
Employees are expected to follow orders.
High dependence on boss
The model is largely based on the Theory X assumptions.
very strict and close supervision is required to get the desired performance
Communication is mostly one way i.e. downward
Little interaction between managers & employees
Motivation depends on physical security & some use of desire for status; better
Performance is ensured through fear , threats, punishments & occasional rewards
Custodial
Model
nagerial orientation is towards the use of money to pay for employee benefits.
del depends upon the ability of the organization to pay for benefits
loyees are highly dependent on the organization for satisfying their security ne
ever, the fulfillment of maintenance factors fails to provide strong motivation.
The employees though happy do not give a high level of performance.
e employees do not have a say in deciding about their rewards or benefits.
is the prerogative of the management to decide what benefits are best suited.
This phenomena is more predominant in family-managed businesses.
prevailing belief is that parents know best what is good or bad for their childre
This model is not suitable for matured employees.

SUPPORTIVE
MODEL
Managerial leadership rather than power & money plays a dominant role.
e culture of the organization is to support the employees to achieve the results.
e focus is on participation & involvement of employees in the managerial decisio

king process.
eadership & other processes of the organization must ensure building & maintaini
he self worth & importance of the employees.
e underlying belief is that human beings move to the maturity level & they expec
e organization al climate which supports this expectation.
h an organizational culture helps their employees to fulfill their higher order n

h as esteem & actualization.
t is best suited in the conditions where employees are self-motivated.
his model is more suited for the managerial level employees with higher order nee
COLLEGIAL
MODEL
The term collegial refers to a body of people having common purpose.
It is based on team concept, each member develops a high understanding towards

Others and shares a common goal.
ntrol is through self-discipline, requiring no external direction or control.
anizational climate is quite conducive to self-fulfillment & self-actualization.
his model is more useful with unprogrammed work requiring behavioral flexibility,
n intellectual environment & considerable job freedom
August 18th for D (3 hrs), A & C (2 hrs each)
EMERGING CHALLENGES
OF OB
GLOBAL COMPETITION
MANAGING DIVERSITY CHANGING WORKFORCE DEMOGRAPHICS
ETHICAL BEHAVIOR OB CHALLENGES CHANGED EMPLOYEE EXPECTATIONS
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFORMATION GLOBALIZATION
INCREASED USE OF CORPORATE DOWNSIZING

TEMPORARY WORKFORCE
RATE OF CHANGE
MANAGING
DIVERSITY
Geographic
Location
Education Cultural
Exp .
Mental / Physical
Abilities &
Characteristics
Work Work
Style Gender Exp .
Age
Ethnic Income
Family Heritage
Status Race
Sexual Religion
Orientation
Communication
Style First
Language
Organizational
Role & Level
Primary Dimensions
Secondary Dimensions
BARRIERS TO ACCEPTING
DIVERSITY
MANAGING
DIVERSITY
In cre a sin g A w a re n e ss
Im p ro v in g D iv e rsity S k ills
E n co u ra g in g cu ltu ra l & g e n d e r d iv e rsity
C o m m ittin g to p m a n a g e m e n t to D iv e rsity
TRAITS ASSOCIATED WITH GENDER
STEREOTYPES
Aggressive Affectionate
Autocratic Complaining
Capable Cooperative
Competitive Emotional
Coarse Easily Influenced
Decisive Forgiving
Humorous Indecisive
Individualistic Illogical
Loud Mild
Objective Passive
Opportunistic Sensitive
Reckless Subjective
Tough-minded Tactful
Unemotional Weak
HISTORICAL
EVOLUTION OF OB
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
xperts chronicled the growth of the subject only from the beginning of 19th centur
ndustrial revolution totally transformed the then industrial environment.
Prior to this the life for an average employee was miserable.
k conditions were brutal & back breaking, work hours were long and work was
formed under intolerable conditions of disease, filth, danger & scarcity of resou
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
•materialism •discipline •monotony •boredom •Job displacement
•Work interdependence •impersonality

INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Robert Owens , a young factory owner is also known as the ‘father’ of

personnel Mgt.
He taught his workers cleanliness, temperance, & improved their working
conditions.
In 1835, Andrew Ure published his The Philosophy of Manufacturers, in
which he included the human factor as one of the factors of production.
Ure provided workers with hot tea, medical treatment & sickness
payments.
home, J . N . Tata took a special interest in the welfare of his workers. He instal
rst humidifiers & fire sprinklers in his factories. In 1886 he instituted a pensi
5 he began to pay accident compensation
SCEINTIFIC
MANAGEMENT
rick Taylor, considered a pioneer in this field. He was responsible for awakening
rest in workers in the 1900s.
or advocated the selection of right people for the right job, training them adequ
ing them in jobs they were best suited and remunerating them handsomely.
ntific Mgt was criticized by both employees & theorists for its over emphasis on
mplishment & monetary incentives at the cost of respect for human beings
THE GREAT
DEPRESSION
terest in human conditions at work was accelerated by World War 1 & then later o
e Great Depression in 1929
Labour Movement resulted in the formation of strong unions had the desired effect
on mgt.
HAWTHORNE
STUDIES
thorne studies refer to a body of research involving three sets of studies.
ton Mayo, a professor of Industrial Research at Harvard’s was the person most
sponsible for conducting the studies and publicizing their significance.
he studies were conducted at the Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne works in

icero, a suburb of Chicago.
CONCEPT & TYPES OF
SELF
Sept. 7th.
SELF – CONCEPT – WHAT
IS IT?
o n c e p t?
W h a t is s e lf- c
Containing learned beliefs , attitudes & Opinions about

egate of a complex, organized & dynamic system
NATURE OF SELF - CONCEPT
Future selves or
SELF CONCEPT not“ possible selves
restricted ” represent
to present only . individuals ’ ideas of what they might become , wh
It includes past selves & future selves
PT corresponds to hopes , fears , standards , goals & threats
nction as incentives for future behavior and they also provide an evaluative and interpretive co
SELF – CONCEPT TYPES
There are SIX major subtypes –
sical i.e. an individual's view of their body, health, physical appearance and stre
ial i.e. an individual's sense of worth in social interactions.
Temperamental i.e. an individual's view of their prevailing emotional

state or
predominance of a particular kind of emotional reaction.
ational i.e. an individual's view of themselves in relation to school, teachers a
curricular activities.
l i.e. an individual's estimation of their moral worth; right or wrong activities
lectual i.e. an individual's awareness of their intelligence and capacity of of

m solving and judgments.
SOME RELATED TERMS
SELF CONCEPT CLARITY SELF KNOWLEDGE

nt to which clear , confident internally
Knowledge
consistent
of one
& temporarily
’ s own personality
stable traits
self knowledge
, ASKs ,, emotions
exists . , beliefs & values
SELF AWARENESS SELF ESTEEM

Simply an individual ’ s awareness of Purely
self evaluative element of self concept
the statement, "I am lazy" is a self-assessment that contributes to the self-concept. In contrast,
statement "I am tired" would not normally be considered part of someone's self-concept, since being tire
mporary state.
SOME BASIC ASSUMPTIONS REGARDING SELF -
CONCEPT
Many of the successes and failures that people experience in many areas
of life are closely related to the ways that they have learned to view
themselves and their relationships with others.
Self-concept has three major qualities:

(1) it is learned,
(2) it is organized and,
(3) it is dynamic
concept is learned. No one is born with a self-concept. It gradually emerges in th

y months of life and is shaped and reshaped through repeated perceived experience
icularly with significant others.
fact that self-concept is learned has some important implications.
use self-concept does not appear to be instinctive, but is a social product develo
ugh experience, it possesses relatively boundless potential for development and
alization.
CONCEPT
individuals may perceive themselves in ways different from the ways
others see them.
ividuals perceive different aspects of themselves at different times with varying

rees of clarity.
Any experience which is inconsistent with one's self-concept may be

perceived as a threat, and the more of these experiences there are,
the more rigidly self-concept is organized to maintain and protect
itself.
When a person is unable to get rid of perceived inconsistencies,

emotional problems arise.
aulty thinking patterns, such as dichotomous reasoning (dividing everything in te

f opposites or extremes) or over generalizing (making sweeping conclusions based
ittle information) create negative interpretations of oneself.
CONCEPT
Self-concept requires consistency, stability, and tends to resist
change. If self-concept changed readily, the individual would lack
a consistent and dependable personality.
more central a particular belief is to one's self-concept, the more resistant one
hanging that belief.
he heart of self-concept is the self-as-doer, the "I," which is distinct from the
-as-object, the various "me's." This allows the person to reflect on past events, an
ent perceptions, and shape future experiences
Basic perceptions of oneself are quite stable, so change

takes time.
ved success and failure create an impact on self-concept. Failure in a highly reg
owers evaluations in all other areas as well. Success in a prized area raises eva
er seemingly unrelated areas.
SOME BASIC ASSUMPTIONS REGARDING
SELF - CONCEPT
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
ØTA is a social psychology and a method to improve communication. The theory
outlines how we have developed and treat ourselves, how we relate and communicate
with others, and offers suggestions and interventions which will enable us to cha
and grow. Transactional Analysis is underpinned by the philosophy that:
§people can change
§we all have a right to be in the world and be accepted.
ØTA refers to a method of analyzing & understanding interpersonal behaviors

ØWhen people interact there is a social transaction in which one person responds
to another
ØThe study of these interactions between people is called Transactional analysis
ØTA was originally developed by Eric Berne for psychotherapy in 1950.
ØAmong other things TA involves analysis of self awareness.
ØTA’s application to ordinary interactions was popularized by Berne, Harris &

Jongeward.
Levels of Awareness- JOHARI
WINDOW
CONCEPT OF JOHARI
WINDOW
hari window is a cognitive psychological tool created by Joseph Luft and
y Ingham in 1955 in the United States, used to help people better understand
r interpersonal communication and relationships.
his model is made up of four quadrants that together

epresent total person in relation to others on the basis of
wareness of behaviors, feelings & motivation
We all have these four parts of Self, as shown in

the Johari Window diagram, but their respective
sizes vary in each of us.
§My Public Self (Open) is what I show
others about me.
§My Hidden Self is what I choose to hide
from others.
§My Blind Spots are parts of me others
see but I do not.
§My Unconscious Self are parts of me I do
not see nor do others.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE HEURISTIC
EXERCISE
ØThis is a small group activity, having 5-6 members in each group.
Ø
ØI would require several volunteers to form a group.
Ø
ØOne of the volunteers will have to take the role of the leader.
ØThe leader shall select six adjectives which s/he thinks best
describes her/him from the list that will be shown to you shortly.
ØOthers shall also individually choose six adjectives which they think
describes the leader best from the same list.
ØAfter the adjectives have been identified for Mr. Volunteer by

All the team members, the adjectives will be mapped on a grid as
per instructions to be given later:
JOHARI WINDOW HEURISTIC
EXERCISE
Able accepting adaptable bold

brave calm Caring cheerful
clever complex confident dependable
Dignified energetic extroverted friendly
Giving happy helpful idealistic
Independent ingenious intelligent introverted
Kind knowledgeable logical loving
Mature modest nervous observant
Organized patient powerful proud
Quiet reflective relaxed religious
Responsive searching self-assertive self-conscious
Sensible sentimental shy silly
Smart spontaneous sympathetic tense
Trustworthy warm wise witty
HEURISTIC EXERCISE
DEBRIEFING
Adjectives that are selected by both the participant and his or her peers are
placed into the Open quadrant. This quadrant represents traits of the
participant of which both they and their peers are aware.
Adjectives selected only by the participant, but not by any of their peers, are
placed into the Hidden quadrant, representing information about the
participant of which their peers are unaware. It is then up to the participant
whether or not to disclose this information.
Adjectives that are not selected by the participant but only by their peers
are placed into the Blind Spot quadrant. These represent information of which
the participant is not aware, but others are, and they can decide whether and
how to inform the individual about these "blind spots".
Adjectives which were not selected by either the participant or their peers
remain in the Unknown quadrant, representing the participant's behaviors or
motives which were not recognized by anyone participating. This may be because
they do not apply, or because there is collective ignorance of the existence
of said trait.
CONCEPT OF JOHARI
WINDOW
e fully aware person has a large Public Self with the other three areas small
ison.
person understands why she acts the way she does and is genuine and open with
because she has minimized her Hidden Self and Blind Spots while working to bring
conscious Self to greater awareness.
s in touch with her needs, feelings, and values - her True Self – the source of he
and identity
A generally unaware person has a small Public Self with the other
three areas large in
comparison.
•This person acts in ways he doesn't understand because outdated decisions

and defense mechanisms have caused him to develop substantial Blind Spots.
•In addition, he is guarded and less genuine with others because he has
developed a significant Hidden Self as a defense against his own deep-
seated
shame. In short, he has disconnected from his True Self, becoming more
Defended than genuine.
CONCEPT OF JOHARI
WINDOW
process of enlarging the open quadrant is called self - disclosure , a give and ta
ess between me and the people I interact with. Typically, as I share something
t myself (moving information from my hidden quadrant into the open) and if
other party is interested in getting to know me, they will reciprocate, by similar
losing information in their hidden quadrant. Thus, an interaction between two
ies can be modeled dynamically as two active Johari windows.
ones level of confidence and self esteem develops, one may actively invite other
mment on one's blind spots. A teacher may seek feedback from students on the qual
a particular lecture, with the desire of improving the presentation.
tive listening skills are helpful in this endeavor. On the other hand, we all h
fenses, protecting the parts of ourselves that we feel vulnerable. The blind quadr
ntains behavior, feelings and motivations not accessible to the person, but which
hers can see. Feelings of inadequacy, incompetence, impotence, unworthiness,
jection, guilt, dependency, ambivalence for loved ones, need for control and
nipulation, are all difficult to face, and yet can be seen by others. To
rcibly reveal what another wishes not to see, is "psychological rape," and
n be traumatic. Fortunately, nature has provided us with a variety of
fense mechanisms to cope with such events, such as denial, ignoring,
tionalizing, etc.
DISCOVERING SELF
OVER / UNDER DISCLOSURE
hen I first meet someone:

a.I stick to talking about the weather – that’s always safe.
b.talk about areas of common interest – sports/hobbies/kids, etc.
c.talk about my romantic relationships/financial difficulties/health problems.
d.talk about the biggest mistakes in my life.
hen I first meet someone:

a.I do all the listening.
b.mostly listen, and interject a line or two.
c.talk more than listen, but make sure the other person has air time.
d.talk almost non-stop.
n something is really bothering me and a close friend/partner asks me what’s

wrong;
a.I say “Nothing,” and change the subject.
b.spend a week working up the courage to talk to them.
c.talk about it as long as they ask me and seem interested.
d.seek them out, and spill everything.
DISCOVERING SELF
OVER / UNDER
DISCLOSURE
4. In my longer-term close friendships and relationships, the other person has to
a.ask me questions to find out any information.
b.ask me questions for most information.
c.look interested and ask, “How are you?”
d.look interested – I’ll volunteer information.
EXERCISE - DEBRIEF
you answered the first 2 questions with “a” or “b”, you probably have a good hand
ot over-disclosing to strangers or acquaintances.
you chose “c” then its an example of instances where we’ve really hit if off wit
nger, and talk more and about more personal topics, and it feels fine.
ve also probably all had occasional experiences where we’ve talked more than we
nded (response “d”) to a particularly sympathetic listener – a seat companion on t
e for example. If you’re doing this with every brand new acquaintance, however, you
have a tendency to over-disclose information.
you answered questions 3 and 4 with “c” or “d” , you are disclosing an appropriat
nt of information in your close relationships, without your friend or partner hav
o all the work!
you answered “a” or “b”, you have a tendency to under-disclose, and you may be
ting the amount of support others can give you, and/or how close your
tionships can grow.
EGO STATES
other aspect of self is three ego states of persons. This is a basic assumption o
eople interact with each other in terms of three psychological positions, or behav
terns, known as ego states.
n other words ‘ego states’ are a person’s way of thinking , feeling and behaving at
nt of time.
vThese ego states are : PARENT , ADULT & CHILD
vThese have nothing to do with the chronological age of the persons.

vThey are related with the behavioral aspects of age.
vA person of any age may have these ego states in varying degrees.
vA healthy person is able to move from one ego state to another.
vThe three ego states are not concepts but are based on real world behavior.
Characteristics of a person acting
With the parent being ego include
PARENT EGO being over protective , distant ,
dogmatic , indispensable & upright .
NUTURING PARENT
ing behavior in its interactions Physical & verbal clues
that someone is acting with
the parent ego include the
wagging finger to show
displeasure ,
reference to laws & rules , CRITICAL
reliance on ways that were PARENT
successful in the past . Critical & evaluative behavior
ADULT EGO
upon reasoning
Persons interacting
, seeking & with
providing
adult information
ego view people as equal
The , interactions
worthy & responsible
& views are
human
based
beings
on rationality
is characterized
state by logical
can be recognized by thinking
Theverbal
adult & reasoning
& state
egophysical . which
formation
signs goesinclude
throughthoughtful
one’s own concentration
experience & continuously
& factual discussion
updatin
A person working with adult ego keeps and controls emotional expressio
e parent
ely erased& child data
, though are continuously
an individual updated
at a later stagefor
in validation & screening
life may block the child for appropriate
& parent expression
ego states . .
Physical & verbal clues are silent compliance, attention seeking, temper tantrums, coy giggling
Characterized by non-logical, immediate actions resulting in immediate sa

creativity, conformity, depression, anxiety, dependence, fear & hate
CHILD EGO
Reflects early childhood conditions & experience perceived by indiv

to move out to face life. He takes what comes his way.
NATURAL ADAPTIVE REBELLIOUS

usually
ive compliant
& sensuous to parents
, fearful wishes . However
, self’ indulgent when overly
, self -,centred inhibited
& aggresive Anger
can
, fear
become
& frustration
the troubled part
LIFE SCRIPT
A, a person’s life is compared to a play and a script is the text of that play.
person’s psychological script is a life plan, a drama which he writes and then
els compelled to live it out.
ript analysis is an examination of transactions and interactions to determine nat

one’s life script.
ccording to Berne, ‘script is a complete plan of living, offering both structures –

tructure of injunctions, prescriptions & permissions and structure which makes on
inner or loser in life’
According to Jongeward – ‘life script resembles the script of a drama- characters,

Dialogues, actions & scenes, themes & plays, culminating towards a climax and ends
In final curtain’
LIFE SCRIPT
also uses the concept of a person’s two stages for action – the public & the pr
lelland provides a scientific study the relationship of life scripts of people an

stories that they read & heard as children and their motives in living. His
earches have shown that achiever’s scripts are based on the success stories, the
ipts of power oriented are based on stories of risk.
person, when confronted with a situation, acts according to his script which is ba
what he expects or how he views his life positions.
s a conclusion it can be said that a man’s behavior is quasi-programmed by the scr

hich emerges out of his life experience.
he life positions of people affect their interactions with others.

Rationally chosen life LIFE
Position . confident , higher
Level of give & take , POSITIONS Feeling of powerlessness
Comfortable with delegation Complaining , vacillating
& sharing of authority Erratic , unpredictable
Behavior .
You are O.K.
I am not O.K
I am O . K . I am not O . K .
I am O . K You are O . K . You are O . K .
I
I am O . K . I am not O . K .
You are not O . K . You are not O . K .
You are not O .Desperate

K. life position ,
Suicidal / homicidal
Aggrieved , distrustful , critical Tendencies , put down by
Do not believe in delegating Others , unable to make
Decisions , make mistakes
TYPES OF SOCIAL TRANSACTIONS
People transact with each other from the child, adult or parent ego states.
Depending upon the kind of ego states involved, the interactions can be either
€COMPLEMENTARY
€ CROSSED
€ ULTERIOR
COMPLEMENTARY CROSSED ULTERIOR
P P P P P P
R
S
A A A S A A A
R S
R
C C C C C C
COMPLEMENTARY
TRANSACTION
his occurs when the message sent or behavior exhibited by one person’s ego state
eceives the appropriate or expected response from the other person’s ego state
nce these transactions meet the needs & expectations of the initiators,
mmunications flow freely.
nteractions will continue as inter-personal relations improve.
here is therefore no scope of conflict in complementary transactions.
In all there can be nine complementary transactions - P-P, A-A C-C,
P-A, A-P, C-P,
P-C, A-C, C-A,

ORGANIZATIONAL PERSPECTIVE
Adult - Adult Transactions
he manager in the adult ego tries to reason out issues, clarifies & keeps employe
formed, has concern for facts , figures & human needs.
is life position is ‘I am O.K. you are O.K.’ This is an ideal transaction.
omplementary transactions in these ego states are very effective because both
rsons are acting in a rational manner; data is processed, decisions are made and
th parties are working for the solutions.
Satisfaction is achieved by both persons from the solution achieved.
relationship is of equality & not of superior-subordinate & lacks servility.
The Adult-Adult transactions are generally characterized by dullness, and sometime

y decisional delays.
ADULT PARENT
TRANSACTION
this transaction while the manager attempts to use the information he has
cessed, the employee in the parent-ego prefers to use the clichés & rules of the p
The employee tries to control & dominate the manager by using the parent-ego.
The transaction style can be effective only on a temporary basis.
An employee in the parent-ego may create hostile feelings towards managers with
dult ego, particularly in the long run.
ADULT-CHILD
TRANSACTION
This interaction can be effective when the manager is aware of the ego-state of th
Employee.
The manager can allow the employee in the child-ego to be creative.
But this transaction has the possibility of a problem in case the employee acts
Irrationally because of his child-ego.
Another problem in this context may be in the form of assumption of employee’s e

PARENT-PARENT
TRANSACTION
The manager in the parent-ego uses ‘I am O.K. You are not O.K.’
S/He will be a source of admonitions, praise, rewards, rules & criticisms.
This mode of transaction can only be beneficial when the employee joins forces wi
the manager & supports her/him.
However, sometimes it may lead to unnecessary competition between the manager

& the employee.
PARENT-ADULT
TRANSACTION
In this type of transaction the manager may be frustrated because the employee wi
Not perform as directed.
On the other hand the employee may also be frustrated because of the manager’s
Failure to act as an adult.
Due to frustrations on both sides the relationship may not last very long
PARENT-CHILD TRANSACTION
is could be the ideal situation if the manager is interacting with parent-ego and
e employee with the child-ego.
he employee finds this transaction advantageous in that it eliminates much of the

esponsibility & pressure.
he employee’s child-ego state prevents much conflict and provides ease of operatio
wever, such interactions will not prove to be advantageous in the long run for b
Leads to the impression that the employee is not dependable, the employee loses
Out on his personal development & growth with the surrender of his adult-ego.
CHILD-PARENT
TRANSACTION
e manager in the child-ego may contribute very little to the effective management.
is so because , though creativity is one of the characteristics of child, manager

goes beyond creativity.
In such a transaction the employee controls the manager.
manager may perceive threats of punishment in the form of ridicule, loss of popu
even fear of demotion.
CHILD-ADULT
TRANSACTION
In this transaction adult employee will control child manager.
The employee may become discouraged particularly when the manager makes
decision on the basis of whims & fancies, and emotions which pose problems for
Employees who want to interact on the basis of rationality.
major disadvantage of this transaction is that the organization may lose many
ood employees who prefer to act on a rational basis.
CHILD-CHILD
TRANSACTION
manager who interacts in this ego state is not capable of leading his employees
ccessfully and can prove to be a liability to his organization.
s transaction cannot last for long in the organizations, as they will review perf
NON-COMPLEMENTARY
TRANSACTIONS
It is also called ‘CROSSED TRANSACTIONS’
These transaction s occur when the stimulus-response lines are not parallel.
Crossed Transaction is not satisfactory. The line of

Communication is blocked & further transactions do
P P take place., especially if the manager is not read
Not
Play the parent child game.
R
A A
S
Another alternative for the manager is to move into
The parent-child ego state in order to resume
C Ccommunication.
ULTERIOR
TRANSACTIONS
These are most complex., as communications in such situations has double meaning.
lterior messages are mostly sent disguised in socially acceptable ways.
n the surface level the communication has a clear adult message, whereas it carrie
hidden message on the psychological level.
ULTERIOR
Ulterior transaction like blocked transactions are undesirable.
P P
R
A A
S
C C
STROKING
An important aspect ofDefined
TA. as any act implying recognition of another’s presen
ers to the need of physical affection for complete psychological development.
People .seek recognition in interaction with ot

Now it applies to all types of recognition
of stroking has its consequences on the physiological as well as the psychologic

being of the individual. Strokes are the basic unit of motivation.
quantity & quality of strokes serve as a either +ve or –ve motivation for employe
od share of satisfaction we get from work depends upon the strokes available from
ities of work themselves become the stroke especially if what we are doing really
can take responsibility for the same.
STROKING
positive results on the job, it is crucial to give people positive strokes.
a person does not get proper strokes a person learns to manipulate the environme
get them.
case the strokes are not available even after manipulation then the employee may
a state that gives negative stroke.
There are two types of Strokes: POSITIVE NEGATIVE
People do not always seek positive strokes

For. reasons of GUILT OR LOW SELF IMAGE
t provides the social equilibrium from their point of view.
However, negative strokes rarely change the undesirable behavior.

PSYCHOLOGICAL
GAMES
A set of transactions having three characteristics:
They . make sense on superficial or social level.

The transactions tend to be repeated
One or more of the transaction is ulterior.
e set of transactions end with a predictable payoff – a negative feeling.
yoffs usually reinforce a decision made in childhood about oneself or about other
Examples: fail to come through for others, pass the buck, make mistakes, complain
About & dote on their own sorrows an inadequacies, catch others in the act.
ychological games can be a powerful force in preventing people & organizations f

coming winners.
PSYCHOLOGICAL
GAMES
Game players usually assume one of the three basic roles:
PERSECUTOR VICTIM RESCUER
rsecutors are characterized by such people who make ‘unrealistic rules’, enforce
les in cruel ways, and pick on little guys rather than people of their own size.
Victims are people who ‘provoke’ others to put them down, use them , hurt them. E.g.
Send them helpless messages , forget conveniently ,
escuers are characterized by people who helpfulness o keep others dependant on t

o not really help others & may actually dislike helping; the work to maintain th
o maintain the victim role.
se three roles are not independent, rather the players often switch back & forth
ir roles.
REASONS FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL GAMES
To get strokes
To Strengthen psychological position
To avoid or control intimacy

Id, Ego,
SuperEgo
FREUD'S STRUCTURAL MODEL OF
PERSONALITY
o, and super - ego are the three parts of the psychic apparatus defined in
d Freud's structural model of the psyche; they are the three theoretical
ucts in terms of whose activity and interaction mental life is described. Accordi
s model of the psyche, the id is the set of uncoordinated instinctual trends; the
s the organized, realistic part; and the super - ego plays the critical and moraliz
rding to Freud, we are born with our Id. The id is an important part of our
onality because as newborns, it allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud
eved that the id is based on our pleasure principle. In other words, the id wants
ever feels good at the time, with no consideration for the reality of the situati
id doesn't care about reality, about the needs of anyone else, only its own
isfaction. When the id wants something, nothing else is important
in the next three years, as the child interacts more and more with the world, the
nd part of the personality begins to develop. Freud called this part the Ego. T
is based on the reality principle.
FREUD'S STRUCTURAL MODEL OF
PERSONALITY
ego understands that other people have needs and desires and that sometimes
g impulsive or selfish can hurt us in the long run. Its the ego's job to meet th
s of the id, while taking into consideration the reality of the situation.
the age of five the Superego develops. The Superego is the moral part of us and
elops due to the moral and ethical restraints placed on us by our caregivers. Man
ate the superego with the conscience as it dictates our belief of right and wrong
healthy person, according to Freud, the ego is the strongest so that it can satisf
of the id, not upset the superego, and still take into consideration the reality
situation. Not an easy job by any means.
e id gets too strong, impulses and self gratification take over the person's life.
the superego becomes to strong, the person would be driven by rigid morals, would
dgmental and unbending in his or her interactions with the world.
FREUD ’ S TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL
FREUD ’ S TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL OF
PERSONALITY
ud believed that the majority of what we experience in our lives, the underlying
tions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses are not available to us at a conscious level
believed that most of what drives us is buried in our unconscious.
eud also believed that everything we are aware of is stored in our conscious.
nscious makes up a very small part of who we are. In other words, at any given t
are only aware of a very small part of what makes up our personality;
Most of what we are is buried and inaccessible.
final part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us that we

ess if prompted, but is not in our active conscious. Its right below the surface,
ll buried somewhat unless we search for it. Information such as our telephone
ber, some childhood memories, or the name of your best childhood friend is stored
the preconscious.
FREUD ’ S TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL OF
PERSONALITY
use the unconscious is so large, and because we are only aware of the very small
cious at any given time, this theory has been likened to an iceberg, where the vas
rity is buried beneath the water's surface. The water, by the way, would represen
ything that we are not aware of, have not experienced, and that has not been
grated into our personalities, referred to as the non-conscious.
LEARNING
WHAT IS
LEARNING?
In layperson’s view “its what we did when we went to school”
ychologist’s definition of learning would be as follows : “ any relatively permane

ge of behavior that occurs as a result of experience”. Therefore it can be said th
ning is a change in behavior.
above definition suggests the inherent nature of learning i.e. we can see change
ing place but we cannot see the learning itself.
PRINCIPLES OF
LEARNING
e definition being used has several components that need to be clarified. These ar
Learning involves
change
Change may be good or bad
Change must become ingrained
Some form of experience is necessary for learning.
erience may be acquired directly through observation or practice or indirectly as

ough reading.
THEORIES OF
LEARNING
Classical Conditioning
Operant ConditioningSocial Learning
e Classical conditioning theory grew out of experiments to teach the dogs to

livate in response to the ringing of a bell.
he experiment was conducted in the early 1900s by a Russian physiologist

van Pavlov .
The key concepts introduced in Classical conditioning were:
nditioned Stimulus – An event which invariably causes a specific behavior.
Unconditioned Response – The reaction that took place whenever

the
Unconditioned stimulus occurred.
itioned Stimulus – originally neutral, but with repeated pairing with the un-
tioned stimulus eventually produces the response when presented alone.
ditioned Response – T he desired response to the conditioned stimulus when

sented alone.
CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
s we can say that learning a conditioned response involves building up an
ociation between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
en the stimuli, one compelling & the other one neutral are paired, the neutral one
comes a conditioned stimulus and hence takes on the properties of the uncondition
imulus.
cal conditioning is passive. An event happens resulting in a specific reaction.

ed response to a specific , identifiable event. This explains simple reflexive rea
most behavior, particularly the complex behavior of organizations is emitted rath

elicited; i.e. it is voluntary rather than reflexive.
OPERANT
CONDITIONING
Skinner, a Harvard psychologist is credited with the creation of this theory.
ner, argued that creating pleasing consequences to follow specific forms of beha
d increase the frequency of that behavior.
concept of operant conditioning was part of Skinner’s broader concept of behavio

ch argues that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.
kinner’s form of radical behaviorism, concepts such as feelings, thoughts and othe
es of minds are rejected as causes of behavior.
emonstrated that people will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they are
tively reinforced for doing so;
t rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response.
vior that is not rewarded or is punished is less likely to be repeated.

SOCIAL LEARNING
THEORY
As per this theory individuals can learn by –
Observing what happens to other people
By just being told about something ,
as well as through direct experience
ial –learning theory is an extension of operant conditioning- i.e. it assumes that

avior is a function of consequences.
also acknowledges the existence of observational learning & the importance of

rception in learning.
eople respond to how they perceive and define consequences in relation to themsel
he influence of models is central to the social-learning viewpoint.
ur processes have been found to determine the influence that a model will have
individual.
THE FOUR
PROCESSES
People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay
Attention to its critical features.
Attentional We tend to be most influenced by models that are attractive,
processes : readily available , Important to us, or similar to us in our
estimation.
A model’s influence depends on how well the

Retention Processes : individual remembers the model’s action, even after
the model is no longer readily available.
After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the

model, the: watching must be converted to doing. This process
r Reproduction Processes
then demonstrates that the individual can perform the
modeled behavior.
Individuals are motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if

Positive :incentives or rewards are provided. Behaviors that are
inforcement Processes
positively reinforced are given more attention, better learned
and performed more often.
WHAT IS SHAPING BEHAVIOR?
attempt to mould individuals by guiding their learning in graduated steps is sa

haping behavior.
tematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to

ired response. E.g. the late comer
METHODS OF SHAPING
BEHAVIOR
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
Following a response with something Following a response by the termination

Pleasant. E.g. praise by the Boss forOrawithdrawal of something unpleasant
Job well done.
PO
PUNISHMENT EXTINCTION
Causing an unpleasant condition in Eliminating

an any reinforcement that is
Attempt to eliminate an undesirablemaintaining a behavior. i.e. when the
behavior Behaviour is not reinforced
REINFORCEMEN NATURE OF EFFECT EXAMPLE
T SCHEDULE
CONTINUOUS REINFORCEME
Reward given after each desired ON
Fast learning of new Compliments
NT
behavior BEHAVIOR
behavior
extinction
but rapid
INTERMITTENT Reinforcing a behavior not Promotes more Slot machine

every time it is demonstrated resistance to extinction
Reward
but oftengiven
FIXED INTERVAL at fixed timethe Average & irregular Monthly paychecks
enough to make
intervals performance with
behavior worth repeating
rapid extinction
VARIABLE-INTERVAL Reward given at variable time Moderately high & Quizzes

intervals stable performance
FIXED RATIO Reward given at fixed amounts with
Highslow extinction
& stable Piece-rate pay
of outputs performance attained
Reward given at variable quickly
Very highbut also with Commissioned Sales
performance
VARIABLE RATIO rapid extinction
amounts of output with slow extinction
CONCEPT
To understand the active nature of self - concept , it helps to imagine it as a gyroc
erson views oneself , others , and the world , but it also serves to direct action and
OB ’ s individual Dimensions
•Personality
•Perception
•Learning,
•attitudes
•Values
•Emotional Intelligence
•Motivation
Nature Of Interpersonal Behavior
le spend a large portion of their time in an organization, interacting with other
ese interactions provide the connective tissues that keep the subparts connected
nction as a united whole.
rmally & generally the interactions are in paired relationships.
This dyadic interaction could be of two types -
Cooperative Conflicting
operative : when an interaction between the two persons is mutually gratifying.
icting: When an interaction is not mutually gratifying because of differing perso

s, interests, lack of interpersonal skills and improper approach of mutual interac
SKILLS FOR COOPERATIVE BEHAVIOR
Focus is on positive aspects in any person, object or event

Positive Thinking
In the context of trust there are two approaches

Mutual Trust
Empathy Understanding other’s viewpoint from his /her perspective.
An act of civility & respect that is shown towards others.

Courtesy
Avoidance Of EgoIsproblems
a personality feature. Ego means putting emphasis on ones
PERSONALITY
CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY
Personality is not easily
defined.
Basically, �personality� refers to our attempts to capture or summarize an
individual’s essence�.
Personality is person - ality , the science of describing and understanding pe
The topic of personality constitutes the most significant area of individual

difference study.
No two people are exactly the same - not even identical twins. Some people
are anxious, some are risk-taking; some are phlegmatic, some highly-strung;
some are confident, some shy; and some are quiet and some are loquacious.
This issue of differences is fundamental to the study of personality.

Lay usage of the term " personality “

We use the term personality frequently but what does it
actually mean?
q�She has a wonderful personality.�

q�He has no personality.�
q�He has personality plus.�
qWe seem to have a personality conflict.�
q�It is just her personality.�
q�She has her mother’s personality.�
q�He’s a real personality.�
Personality comes from the Greek word " persona ", meaning " mask “
The study of personality can be understood as the study of �masks� that peop
wear.
These are the personas that people project and display, but also includes the
inner parts of psychological experience which we collectively call our self�
" I " is for personality

According to Adams (1954, cited in Schultz & Schultz, 1994) personality is �I�
Adams suggested that we get a good idea of what personality is by listening t

what we say when we use "I".
When you say I , you are, in effect, summing up everything about yourself - you
likes and dislikes, fears and virtues, strengths and weaknesses.
The word I is what defines you as an individual, as a person

separate from all others.�
AN INDIVIDUAL EXERCISE
" I am " exercise
§Write 10 honest endings to "I am...“

§
§Share them with someone.
§Does this sum up your personality? Why or why not?

PERSONALITY DEFINITIONS
Define personality.
Some available definitions :-
ØFor some it is - a general sum of traits or characteristics of a person.
ØFor some others it is – a unique mode of response to life situations.
ØPersonality is made up of the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings a

behaviors that make a person unique.
ØIn addition to this, personality arises from within the individual and remain
fairly consistent throughout life.
ØPersonality is the supreme realization of the innate idiosyncrasy of a living

The absolute affirmation of all that constitutes the individual.
Carl Gusta
A contemporary definition for personality is offered by Carver
and Scheier (2000, p.5): �
“Personality is a dynamic organization, inside the person, of

psychophysical systems that create a person’s characteristic
patterns of behavior, thoughts, and feelings.”�
oDynamic Organization : suggests ongoing
readjustments, adaptation to experience, continual
upgrading and maintaining. Personality doesn’t just lie
there. It has process and it’s organized.
oInside the Person : suggests internal storage of
patterns, supporting the notion that personality
influences behaviors etc.
oPsychophysical systems : suggests that the physical
is also involved in �who we are.
oCharacteristic Patterns : implies that
consistency/continuity which are uniquely identifying of
an individual
oBehavior , Thoughts , and Feelings : indicates that
personality includes a wide range of psychological
experience/manifestation:
that personality is displayed in MANY ways.
Carver & Scheier (2000, p.5) suggest that the word personality
conveys a sense of
vconsistency,
vinternal causality, and
vpersonal distinctiveness�.
v
This issue of �personal distinctiveness is very important. There
are certain universal characteristics of the human race and
particular features of individuals. We all for example experience
stress and the elevated cortisol that goes with it, and we
all suffer the immune suppressive effects thereof.
BUT each of us is unique too .

1. The visible aspect of one's character as it impresses others:
He has a pleasing personality.
2. a person as an embodiment of a collection of qualities: He is
a curious personality.
3. Psychology .
a. the sum total of the physical, mental, emotional, and
social characteristics of an individual.
b. the organized pattern of behavioral characteristics of
the individual.
4. the quality of being a person; existence as a self-conscious
human being; personal identity.
5. the essential character of a person.
6. something apprehended as reflective of or analogous to a
distinctive human personality, as the atmosphere of a place or
thing: This house has a warm personality.
7. a famous, notable, or prominent person; celebrity.
8. application or reference to a particular person or particular
persons, often in disparagement or hostility.
9. a disparaging or offensive statement referring to a
particular person: The political debate deteriorated into
personalities.
P E R S O N A L IT Y
D E F IN IT IO N S
Gordon Willard Allport, an American psychologist was one of the first
To focus on the study of personality.
Allport identified fifty different definitions of personality and categorized t

into five areas as follows
1.Omnibus – These definitions view personality as the sum-total, aggregate, or

Constellation of properties or qualities.
2.Integrative & configurational – This view stresses the organization of person

Attributes.
3.Hierarchical – These definitions specify the various levels of integration or

organization of personality.
4.Adjustment – This view emphasizes the adjustment (adaptation, survival &

Evolution) of the person to the environment.
5.Distinctiveness – This category stresses the uniqueness

of each personality.
PERSONALITY
DETERMINANTS
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
INDIVIDUAL
FAMILY & SOCIAL INDIVIDUAL SITUATIONAL

FACTORS PERSONALITY FACTORS
CULTURAL FACTORS
PERSONALITY
DETERMINANTS
Personality represents a process of change and it relates to the psychological
growth & development of individuals.
There are various determinants of personality and these have been

Categorized in different ways.
McClelland has categorized these factors into four fundamental theories

üTraits (acquired propensity to respond)
üSchema (beliefs, values, Ideas, frames of reference & major orientati
üMotives (Inner drives)
üSelf Schema (Observation of one’s own behavior)
ü
Scott & Mitchell classified the different determinants as
ØHeredity
ØGroups
ØCultural factors both psychological & physiological
These factors are interdependent & interrelated

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Heredity :
• Physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament,
muscle composition, reflexes, energy level, and biological
rhythms are characteristics that are considered to be inherent.
• It plays an important part in determining an individual's

personality.
• Heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an

individual's personality is the molecular structures of the
genes, which are located in the chromosomes.
• Recent research studies show that some personality traits may

be built into the same genetic code that affects factors like
height and hair color.
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Brain :
• Brain is the second biological factor to determine / shape
personality.
• Psychologists & physiologists have divided the brain in two

hemisphere –
The left & the right.
•The structure of these hemispheres impact the development of

personality.
• Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB) and Split brain

psychology results indicate that a better understanding of
human personality and behavior might come from a closer study
of the brain.
• The definite areas of the human brain are associated with pain
and pleasure. Research study shows that these things are true.
LEFT & RGHT HEMISPHERES
Speech, Musical
Verbal Artistic
Logical Holistic
Mathematical, Emotional
Linear, Intuitive
Detailed Creative
Sequential Spiritual
Controlled Receptive
Intellectual Simultaneous
Dominant comprehension
Wordly Perception of
Active abstract patterns
Analytical. Recognition of
Reading, writing, naming sequential ordering complex figures.
Perception of significant order
Complex motor sequences.
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Biofeedback :
• It is third biological approach to determine personality.
• Physiologists and psychologists felt that biological

functions like brainwave, patterns, gastric and hormonal
secretions, and fluctuations in blood pressure and skin
temperature were beyond conscious control. Recent research
shows that these functions can be consciously controlled
through biofeedback techniques.
• For this purpose, individual can learn the internal rhythms

of a particular body process through electronic signals that
are feedback from equipment which is wired to body.
• In this process, the person can learn to control the body

process through questions. It is one of the interesting topics
to do future research work in personality.
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Physical Features :
• It is the fourth biological approach to determine
personality.
• It focuses on an individual person's external appearance

which also determines the personality.
• Physical features like tall or short, fat or skinny, black or

white. These physical features will influence the personal
effect on others and also affect self concept of individual.
• Research studies show that definitely this feature

influences the individual personality.
•
•Heredity would be fixed at birth and no amount of experience
can be altering them through creation of suitable environment.
Apart from this, personality characteristics are not
completely dictated by
heredity. There are other factors also influenced to
determining personality.
CULTURAL FACTORS
"Each culture expects, and trains, its members to behave in
ways that are acceptable to the group. To a marked degree, the
child's cultural group defines the range of experiences and
situations he is likely to encounter and the values and
personality characteristics that will reinforced and hence
learned". -Paul H Mussen
• Cultural factors are also major factors which influence to
determine individual personality.
• It refers to traditional practice, customs, procedure, norms
and rules and regulation followed by the society.
• It significantly influences the individual behavior compared
to biological factors.
• Cultural factors determine attitudes towards independence,
aggression, competition, cooperation, positive thinking, team
spirit, and a host of the human being and discharge his/her
duties towards valuable responsibilities to society.
• Western culture influence to Indian society. It is best
example of the cultural factors also determine the
personality.
FAMILY FACTORS
• Family factors are also major factors which influence to
determine individual
personality.
• Family consists of husband and wife and their children's.
• Family role is very important for nurturing and personality

development of their children.
• Family will be guided, supervised, take care of all family

members, cooperation,
52 Organizational Behavior coordination and cooperation in work
and also explained the role and responsibilities towards the
family, society and real life.
• Family either directly or indirectly influence to person for
development of individual personality.
SOCIAL FACTORS
• Social factors are also major factors which influence to
determine individual
personality.
• It involves the reorganization of individual's in an

organization or society.
• It refers to acquiring of wide range of personality by

acquiring and absorbed by themselves in the society or an
organization.
• Socialization process is starting from home and extending to

work environment in an organization or society.
• It focuses on good relationships, cooperation, coordination

and interaction among the members in the society or an
organization or a family.
In totally, environment factors consist of cultural factors,
family factors, and social factors.
SITUATIONAL FACTORS
• Situational factors also influence to determine of
personality.
• Situational factors are very important to change the

individual behavior in a
different circumstance at different situations, it also
influence to personality of
individual person.
• In general term, personality is stable and consistent and it

does change in different situations.
The Interaction of Personality and Situational Factors are

outlined:
• Strong situational pressures
• Personality may not predict behavior
• Example: enforcement of rules
• Weak Situational pressures
• Personality may predict behavior
• Example: Customer sales representative
• A strong situation can overwhelm the effects of individual
personalities by providing strong cues for appropriate
behavior.
PERSONALITY TYPES
MACHIAVALLIANISM
Machiavellianism is, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, "the
employment of cunning and duplicity in statecraft or in general conduct",
Some social and personality psychologists use ‘Machiavellianism’ to describe

a person's tendency to deceive and manipulate other people for their
personal gain.
Machiavellianism is one of the three personality traits referred

to as the dark triad, along with narcissism and psychopathy.
Some psychologists consider Machiavellianism to be essentially a

subclinical form of psychopathy, although recent research
suggests that while machiavellianism and psychopathy overlap,
they are distinct personality constructs.
Machiavellianism has been found to share a strong negative

correlation with agreeableness and a moderate correlation
With extraversion on the Big Five (NEO-PI-R).
NARCISSISM
Narcissism is the personality trait of egotism, vanity &
conceit, or simple selfishness.
Applied to asocial group it is sometimes used to denote elitism

or an indifference to the plight of others.
The name "narcissism" was coined by FREUD after NARCISSUS who

in Greek mythology was a pathologically self-absorbed young man
who fell in love with his own reflection in a pool.
Freud believed that some narcissism is an essential part of all

of us from birth. Andrew P. Morrison claims that, in adults, a
reasonable amount of healthy narcissism allows the individual's
perception of his needs to be balanced in relation to others.
Healthy narcissism is a structural truthfulness of the self,
achievement of self and object constancy, synchronization
between the self and the superego and a balance between
libidinal and aggressive drives (the ability to receive
gratification from others and the drive for impulse expression).
Healthy narcissism forms a constant, realistic self-interest and

mature goals and principles and an ability to form deep
object relations. A feature related to healthy narcissism is the
feeling of greatness. This is often used to compensate for
insecurity or inadequacy
PERSONALITY TESTS
A personality test aims to describe aspects of a person's

character that remain stable throughout that person's lifetime.
An early model of personality was posited by Greek
philosopher/physician Hippocrates. The 20th century
heralded a new interest in defining and identifying separate
personality types, in close correlation with the emergence of
the field of psychology. As such, several distinct tests
emerged; some attempt to identify specific characteristics, while
others attempt to identify personality as a whole.
PROJECTIVE TEST
Was first used by Sigmund Freud.
Freud says “ projection is a defense system or process in which impulses,

wishes & ideas are externalized because their conscious recognition woul
be too painful to the ego.”
The modern psychologists disagree with the above view.
As per them projection as elicited by a projective technique can actually

Unpressed, conscious, acceptable, even admirable and need not include
Defensive or anxiety avoidant components.
A projective method of personality measurement consists of different

procedures that claim to disclose the basic (underlying, hidden)
Personality structure & motivation of a subject by having him
Organize, respond to a preconceived system of correct
Or incorrect answers.
PROJECTIVE TEST
The two widely used tests are –
# Rorschach ink blot test and # Thematic
apperception test.
In psychology, a projective test is a personality test
designed to let a person respond to ambiguous stimuli,
presumably revealing hidden emotions and internal conflicts.
This is different from an "objective test" in which responses
are analyzed according to a universal standard (for example, a
multiple choice exam).
# Rorschach ink blot test : was developed by Herman

Rorschach.
vThe ink blot test measures the cognitive, conative &
affective aspects of personality structure.
vRepressed desires, motives, feelings and ideas of unconscious
mind can be studied by the help of this test.
vThis test contains ten standardized cards in which 5 cards
have white &
Black blots & 5 cards have colored blots.
vEvery person according to his personality structure
Perceives various things – man, animal or any other object.
RORSCHACH INK-BLOT
TEST
e subject. This is to facilitate a "relaxed but controlled atmosphere".
Each of the blots has near perfect bilateral symmetry.
ckground.After the test subject has seen and responded to all of the inkblots (fre
other related factors such as whether permission to rotate them is asked, may exp
RORSCHACH INK-BLOT
TEST
es down everything the subject says or does, no matter how trivial. Analysis of r
individual sees in the inkblot (the content). In fact, the contents of the response
t (taking a long time can indicate "shock" on the card), as well as by any comments
form and color) and location (which details of the inkblots triggered the respo
RORSCHACH INK-BLOT
TEST
ty (or, conversely, originality).
be elicited by very disparate factors, which makes it difficult to use content al
e set of content responses (which is only feasible when several responses are ava
The basis for the response is usually the whole inkblot, a

detail (either a commonly or an uncommonly selected one), or the
negative space around or within the inkblot
RORSCHACH INK-BLOT
TEST
“Determinants": are the factors that contribute to establish

the similarity between the inkblot and the subject's content
response about it, and they can represent certain basic
experiential-perceptual attitudes, showing aspects of the way a
subject perceives the world.
Rorschach's original work used only form, color and movement;

currently, another major determinant considered is shading,
which was inadvertently introduced by poor printing of the
inkblots (which originally featured uniform saturation), and
subsequently recognized as significant by Rorschach himself.
RORSCHACH INK-BLOT
TEST
‘Form ‘ is the most common determinant, and is related to
intellectual processes; color responses often provide direct
insight into emotional life.
Shading and movement have been considered more ambiguously,

both in definition and interpretation: Rorschach originally
disregarded shading (which was originally not even present on
the cards, being a result of the print process), and he
considered movement as only actual experiencing of motion,
while others have widened the scope of this determinant, taking
it to mean that the subject sees something "going on".
More than one determinant can contribute to the formation of

the subject's percept, and fusion of two determinants is taken
into account, while also assessing which of the two constituted
the primary contributor (e.g. "form-color" implies a more refined
control of impulse than "color-form"). It is, indeed, from the
relation and balance among determinants that personality can be
most readily inferred.
RORSCHACH INK-BLOTS
RORSCHACH INK-BLOTS
RORSCHACH INK-BLOT
TEST
The general goal of the test is to provide data about cognition
and personality variables such as motivations, response
tendencies, cognitive operations, affectivity, and
personal/interpersonal perceptions.
vBased on this perception, the personality characteristics of the person

Concerned are identified.
vThis test is quite useful in diagnosis of personality related problems,
Occupation selection etc.
vThe reliability of this test is very high.
Some criticisms of projective tests include

that they rely
heavily on clinical judgment, lack reliability
and validityand many have no standardized
criteria to which results may be compared,
however this is not always the case.
THEMATIC APPERCEPTION
TEST
stiana D. Morgan at Harvard during the 1930s to explore the underlying dynamics of
Test, or Picture interpretation technique is a projective measure intended to ev

ht,
acity, and
es to ambiguous test materials.
e ambiguous materials consist of a set of cards that portray human figures in a v
ll the examiner a story about each card that includes the following elements:
in the picture;
to it;
ers in the picture are feeling and thinking; and
he event.
TEST
that is, it asks the subject to project his or her habitual patterns of thought
ality. It is considered to be effective in eliciting information about a person's

rs, parents or other authority figures, subordinates, and possible romantic partne
For example, a person who is made anxious by a certain picture may make comments a
TEST
of skill in dealing with other people and/or ability to cope with high levels of
The test can be administered individually and in groups also. An

Indian version
Containing 14 pictures has also been developed.
The reliability
coefficient is 0.91
SELF REPORT
SURVEYS
A self - report inventory is a type of psychological test in
which a person fills out a survey or questionnaire with or
without the help of an investigator. Self-report inventories
often ask direct questions about symptoms, behaviors, and
personality traits associated with one or many mental disorders
or personality types in order to easily gain insight into a
patient's personality or illness. Most self-report inventories
can be taken or administered within five to 15 minutes,
although some, like the MMPI, (Minnesota Multi-phasicPersonality
Inventory) can take up to three hours to fully complete.
The biggest problem with self-report inventories is that

patients may exaggerate symptoms in order to make their
situation seem worse, or they may under-report the severity or
frequency of symptoms in order to minimize their problems. For
this reason, self-report inventories should be used only for
measuring for symptom change and severity and should never be
solely used to diagnose a mental disorder. Clinical discretion
is advised for all self-report inventories.
SELF REPORT SURVEYS
Many personality tests, such as the MMPI or the MBTI are
designed to make it very difficult for a person to exaggerate
traits and symptoms.
Some popular Self Report Inventories/surveys are mentioned

below..
q 16 PF
q Beck Anxiety Inventory
q Beck Depression Inventory
q Beck Hopelessness Scale
q California Psychological Inventory
q Geriatric Depression Scale
qHirschfeld Mood Disorder Questionnaire
q Kuder Occupational Interest Survey
q Major Depression Inventory
q Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
q Myers - Briggs Type Indicator
SELF REPORT SURVEYS
Self-report inventories are often an good solution when

researchers need to administer a large number of tests in
relatively short space of time. Many self report inventories can
be completed very quickly, often in as little as 15 minutes. This
type of questionnaire is an affordable option for researchers
faced with tight budgets.
Another strength is that the results of self report inventories
are generally much more reliable and valid than
projective tests. Scoring of the tests is standardized and
based on norms that have been previously established.
However, self report inventories do have their weaknesses. For
example, while many tests implement strategies to prevent "faking
good" or "faking bad," research has shown that people are able to
exercise deception while taking self report tests (Anastasi &
Urbina, 1997).
Another weakness is that some tests are very long and tedious.
For example, the MMPI takes approximately 3 hours to complete. In
some cases, test respondents may simply lose interest and not
answer questions accurately. Additionally, people are sometimes
not the best judges of their own behavior. Some individuals may
try to hide their own feelings, thoughts and attitudes.
MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE
INDICATOR (MBTI)
During the 1920s, the Swiss psychologist Carl Jung proposed a personality
Theory that, identified the way people prefer to perceive their environment
Twenty years later, the mother daughter team of Katherine Briggs & Isabel
Briggs-Myers developed the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator(MBTI), a personality
Test that measures each of the traits of Jung’s model.
Mainly used in the employee hiring process, MBTI measures how people prefer
To focus their attention (extroversion vs introversion), collect information
(sensing vs intuition), process & evaluate information (thinking vs feeling)
Orient themselves to the outer world (judging vs perceiving).
MBTI PERSONALITY
TYPES
Extroversion : reflects a person’s comfort level with relationships. Extro
Are sociable, talkative, assertive and open to establishing new relationships.
Introverts : are less sociable, less talkative & less assertive and more
reluctant to begin relationships.
Sensitivity / intuition : Sensing types use an organized structure to a

Factual & preferably quantitative details. Sensors are capable of synthesizing
volumes of data & draw quick conclusions.
In contrast, intuitive types collect Information non-systematically. They rely m
on subjective evidence, as well as their intuition and even inspiration.
In the real world the work of management requires a combination of intuiting &
Sensing abilities.
Thinking / Feeling : Thinking types rely on the rational cause-effect log

Scientific methods to make decisions. They weigh the evidence objectively &
unemotionally. Feeling types, instead consider how their choices affect others.
They weigh the options against their personal values more than on rational log
MBTI PERSONALITY
TYPES
Judging / Perceiving : Some people prefer order & structure in their
Relationship with their outer world. These judging-types enjoy the control
Decision making and want to resolve problems quickly.
In contrast Perceiving Types are more flexible. They like to adapt
Spontaneously to events as they unfold & want to keep their options open.
The theory of Personality Types, as it stand today, contends

that:
An individual is either primarily E xtraverted or I ntroverted
An individual is either primarily S ensing or iN tuitive
An individual is either primarily T hinking or F eeling
An individual is either primarily J udging or P erceiving
The possible combinations of the basic preferences form 16

different Personality Types.
MBTI PERSONALITY
TYPES
This does not mean that all (or even most) individuals will fall
strictly into one category or another.
As we grow and learn, most of us develop the ability to function
well in realms which are not native to our basic personalities.
In the trials and tribulations of life, we develop some areas of
ourselves more thoroughly than other areas.
With this in mind, it becomes clear that we cannot box
individuals into prescribed formulas for behavior. However, we
can identify our natural preferences, and learn about our
natural strengths and weaknesses within that context.
To conclude we can say that the theory of Personality Types

contends that each of us has a natural preference which falls
into one category or the other in each of these four areas, and
that our native Personality Type indicates how we are likely to
deal with different situations that life presents, and in which
environments we are most comfortable.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
•Career Guidance What types of tasks are we most suited to

perform? Where are we naturally most happy?
•Managing Employees How can we best understand an employee's
natural capabilities, and where they will find the most
satisfaction?
•Inter - personal Relationships How can we improve our
awareness of another individual's Personality Type, and
therefore increase our understanding of their reactions to
situations, and know how to best communicate with them on a
level which they will understand?
•Education How can we develop different teaching methods to
effectively educate different types of people?
•Counseling How we can help individuals understand themselves
better, and become better able to deal with their strengths and
weaknesses?
•Employee Hiring MBTI helps in employee selection, suitable
placement , development etc.
Team Building As members of a team learn to understand and
even appreciate differences among them, they are better able to
build on complementary strengths and ways of dealing with
problems.
FIRO-B
Interpersonal Relations Orientation-Behavior.
n 1958, Schutz first used the FIRO-B® tool to assess how teams performed in the US
ool used to help individuals and teams better understand their preferences in sat
ch one belongs to a group, team or community)
one prefers to have structure, hierarchy and influence)
for warmth, disclosure and intimacy).

FIRO-B
ses individuals as to:
pressed to them from others.
e three aspects of
ction,
sing (outwardly directed behaviour towards others) and wanting (behaviour from
t also reveal the degree to which people attain satisfaction from their interact
rly rich in enabling understanding individual and team behaviour.

FIRO-B
By reviewing the assessment information, an individual can gain
insight into # what kind of teams they prefer to work in,
# what kind of environment they'd like to work in, and
# what roles they prefer in the workplace.
The FIRO-B® model and assessment tool can also provide

information regarding leadership styles and areas of
potential conflict .
If teams take the assessment together, they can compare the

extent to which each person's preferences complement or
conflict with colleagues . e.g. , a team member wanting a
high degree of inclusion would appreciate and respond well to a
manager who invites him/her to various meetings. A team member
with a high degree of expressed affection is likely to work
well with a colleague who seeks affection and attention.
The FIRO-B® system is a simple and elegant model that

particularly assists understanding of team dynamics, greater
self - awareness, mutual awareness among team - members
(which relates helpfully to the Johari Window model ), and
team leadership development .
PSYCHOMETRIC
TESTS
Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the
theory and technique of educational and psychological
measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge,
abilities, attitudes, and personality traits.
The field is primarily concerned with the construction and

validation of measurement instruments, such as
questionnaires, tests, and personality assessments.
It involves two major research tasks, namely:

(i) the construction of instruments and procedures for
measurement; and
(ii) the development and refinement of theoretical
approaches to measurement.
Those who practice psychometrics are known as
psychometricians and although they may also be clinical
psychologists, they are not obliged to be so and could instead
be (for example) human resources or
learning and development professionals. Either way
specific, separate, qualifications in psychometrics are
required.
PSYCHOMETRIC
TESTS
Much of the early theoretical and applied work in psychometrics
was undertaken in an attempt to measure intelligence.
Francis Galton, often referred to as "the father of

psychometrics", devised and included mental tests among his
anthropometric measures. However, the origin of psychometrics
also has connections to the related field of psychophysics.
The psychometrician L . L . Thurstone, founder and first

president of the Psychometric Society in 1936, developed and
applied a theoretical approach to measurement referred to as
the law of comparative judgment, an approach that has
close connections to the psychophysical theory of
Ernst Heinrich Weber and Gustav Fechner. In addition,
Spearman and Thurstone both made important contributions to the
theory and application of factor analysis.
P S Y C H O M E T R IC
TESTS
More recently, psychometric theory has been applied in the
measurement of personality,
Attitudes,
Beliefs, and
academic achievement.
Measurement of these unobservable phenomena is difficult, and

much of the research and accumulated science in this discipline
has been developed in an attempt to properly define and
quantify such phenomena.
Critics, including practitioners in the physical sciences and

social activists, have argued that such definition and
quantification is impossibly difficult, and that such
measurements are often misused, such as with psychometric
personality tests used in employment procedures.
"For example, an employer wanting someone for a role requiring

consistent attention to repetitive detail will probably not
want to give that job to someone who is very creative and gets
bored easily."
PSYCHOMETRIC TESTS
The first psychometric instruments were designed to measure the

concept of intelligence.
Psychometrics is applied widely to measure abilities in domains

such as reading, writing, and mathematics
Another major focus in psychometrics has been on personality

testing. There have been a range of theoretical approaches to
conceptualizing and measuring personality. Some of the better
known instruments include the Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory , (or "Big 5") and tools such as
Personality and Preference Inventory and the
Myers - Briggs Type Indicator. Attitudes have also been
studied extensively using psychometric approaches.
MOTIVATION
Motivation (7 Hours)
(a) Motivation as a process, Classification of Motives (1.5 Hours)
(i) Power motive

(ii) Achievement motive
(iii) Social motive
(iv) Security motive
(b) Theories of Motivation : Content theories : (3 Hours)
(i) Maslow
(ii) Herzberg
(iii) Adlerfer
(c) Process Theories: (1.5 Hours)
(i) Vroom
(ii) Attribution Theory
(d) Integration of Content and process theory (1.5 Hour)

Case Study on Motivation
MOTIVATION DEFINITION
Derived from Latin word ‘ movere ’ , which means to move.
Internal and external factors that stimulate desire and

energy in people to be continually interested in and
committed to a job, role, or subject, and to exert
persistent effort in attaining a goal. Motivation is the
energizer of behavior and mother of all action.
It results from the interactions among conscious and

unconscious factors such as the
(1) intensity of desire or need,
(2) incentive or reward value of the goal, and
(3) expectations of the individual and of his or
her significant others.
Motivation is a set of forces that energizes people to behave in certain wa

MOTIVATION DEFINITION
The following definitions of motivation reflect the general

consensus that motivation is an internal state or condition
(sometimes described as a need, desire, or want) that serves to
activate or energize behavior and give it direction (Kleinginna
and Kleinginna).
üInternal state or condition that activates behavior

and gives it direction;
üDesire or want that energizes and directs goal-

oriented behavior;
üInfluence of needs and desires on the intensity and

direction of behavior.
P R O C E S S O F M O T IV A T IO N
P R O C E S S O F M O T IV A T IO N
CLASSIFICATION OF
MOTIVATION
qIntrinsic / E xtrinsic .
Intrinsic motivation is internal. It occurs when people are
compelled to do something out of pleasure, importance, or desire.
Extrinsic motivation occurs when external factors compel the
person to do something.
qPrimary/ General /Secondary
Primary Motives : Not learned and are physiological based
(e.g. hunger, thirst etc.)
General Motives : Neither purely primary or secondary;
neither learned or physiological; stimulate tension within a
person (e.g. Curiosity, Manipulation & activity motives,
Affection Motives)
qSecondary Motives : Learned & acquired over time. (e.g.
Power, Achievement, Affiliation, Security & Status Motives)
qSimple / Complex Motives
POWER MOTIVE
McClelland (1961), identified Power as one of three needs
related to management behaviour, the other two being Achievement
and Affiliation.
The need for Power is an urge to control others: to be able

to influence them and make them do things which perhaps
they would not have done if left to themselves. Along with this
they accumulate the symbols and status of power and the prestige
they consider to go along with it.
McClelland identified four stages within the power orientation:

1. Drawing inner strength from others - being a loyal
follower and serving the power of other people;
2. Strengthening oneself - beginning to play the power game,
collecting symbols of status, one-upmanship, trying to dominate
situations;
3. Self - assertiveness - becoming more aggressive and trying to
manipulate situations so as to use other people to achieve one's
own targets;
4. Acting as an instrument of higher authority -
identifying with some organisation or authority system and
employing the methods learnt in stages 2 and 3 but now being
able to claim formal legitimacy.
NEED FOR POWER
People who exhibit N-Powtendencies are thought to be most

satisfied by seeing their environment move in a certain
direction, due to their involvements.
Sex differences also affect the way power motive is expressed.
While men with more n-POW show high levels of aggression, drink
heavily, act in sexually exploitative manner, and participate in
competitive sports, women channel their n-POW in a more
socially acceptable and responsible manner, being more
concerned and caring and so on.
Blake and Mouton (1964) would feature the kind of person who
maximises this kind of approach as having the 'Authority -
Obedience' style of management: concentrating on maximising
production through the exercise of personal authority and
power.
NEED FOR POWER
This style of management is described by Chell (1987):
" such a leader combines a high concern for production with a

low concern for people.
# He or she concentrates on maximising production by
exercising power and authority, and achieving control over
people by dictating what they should do and how they should do
it.
# Typically he or she will 'drive him - or herself and others',
investigate situations to ensure control and that others are

not making mistakes;
# Defend own ideas and opinions even though it may mean
rejecting those of others;
# Deal with conflict by either trying to cut it off or winning
own position;
# Make own decisions;
# Is rarely influenced by others; and
# is not afraid to pinpoint other people's weaknesses and
failures."
NEED FOR
ACHEIVEMENT
The need for achievement is a personality trait

characterized by an enduring and consistent concern with
setting and meeting high standards of achievement. This need
is influenced by internal drive for action (intrinsic
motivation), and the pressure exerted by the expectation of
others ( extrinsic motivation). Measured by thematic
apperception tests, need for achievement motivates an
individual to succeed in competition , and to excel in
activities important to him or her.
NEED FOR
ACHEIVEMENT
Need for Achievement (N - Ach) refers to an individual's

desire for
q significant accomplishment,
q mastering of skills,
q control, or
q high standards.
The term was first used by Henry Murray in "Explorations in

Personality" (1938) and associated with a range of actions.
These include: "intense, prolonged and repeated efforts to

accomplish something difficult.
To work with singleness of purpose towards a high and distant

goal.
To have the determination to win“ . The concept of N-Ach was

subsequently popularized by the psychologist David McClelland
NEED FOR
ACHIEVEMENT
Need for Achievement is related to the difficulty of tasks
people choose to undertake.
Those with low N - Ach may choose very easy tasks, in order to
minimize risk of failure, or highly difficult tasks, such that
a failure would not be embarrassing.
Those with high N - Ach tend to choose moderately difficult

tasks, feeling that they are challenging, but within reach.
People high in N-Ach are characterized by a tendency to seek
challenges and a high degree of independence. Their most
satisfying reward is the recognition of their achievements.
In business, this aggressive realism is the mark of a

successful entrepreneur.
People with high need for achievement are not gamblers . They
prefer to work on a problem rather than leave the outcome to
chance.
NEED FOR
ACHIEVEMENT
Another characteristic of the achievement motivated people is that they
Seem to be more concerned with personal achievement than rewards of
success . They do not reject rewards but the rewards are not as essential a
the accomplishment itself.
Such people are also characterized with a high need for regular performanc
feedback. The nature of the feedback is also very important to them.
Sources of high N-Ach include :
1.Parents who encouraged independence in childhood.

2.Praise and rewards for success
3.Association of achievement with positive feelings
4.Association of achievement with one's own competence and
effort, not luck
5.A desire to be effective or challenged
6.Intrapersonal Strength
NEED FOR
ACHIEVEMENT
Why do achievement –motivated people behave as they do?
Is this a taught skill?
Achievement –oriented people do not always make the best managers

Unless they work hard on their interpersonal skills.
Achievement –motivated people are more likely to be developed in familie

Where parents hold different expectations from their children as compare
To other parents.
More importantly such parents expect their children to start showing

independence between the ages of six and eight, making choices & doing
Things without help.
NEED FOR
AFFILIATION
NEED FOR AFFILIATION
Affiliation can be defined as a positive, sometimes intimate,

personal relationship.
The Need for affiliation (N - Affil) is a term that was

popularized by David McClelland and describes a person's need
to feel a sense of involvement and "belonging" within a social
group;
People with a high need for affiliation require warm

interpersonal relationships and approval from those with whom
they have regular contact. People who place high emphasis on
affiliation tend to be supportive team members, but may be less
effective in leadership positions.
Identify some of the situations where the need for affiliation is high.
Stressful situations e.g. major calamities, like terrorist attacks, floods,

earthquakes, cyclones , deaths, major illnesses etc.
Fearful / Anxious situations e.g. Airplane, train crashes, abduction,

accidents, hospitalizations, major life failures.
Research done in 1959 shows that fear that comes from anxiety
Increases the need for the person to affiliate with others who are going
through the same situation or that could help them through the stressful
event. The strength of this need changes from one person to the next,
there are moments that people just want to be together.
The need for affiliation for an individual can vary over

short amounts of time; there are times when individuals wish
to be with others and other times to be alone.
Depending on the specific circumstances, an individual's level

of need for affiliation can become increased or decreased.
Yacov Rofe suggested that the need for affiliation depended on

whether being with others would be useful for the situation or
not.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE N - AFFIL PERSONALITY TYPE
oThey want to be liked and accepted by others., and attach importance to a

Personal interaction.
oThey tend to conform with the norms of their work groups.
oThey strive to make & keep relationships with a high amount of trust and
mutual understanding.
oThey prefer cooperation to competition
oThey perform well in customer service & client interaction situations
oA strong N-Affil undermines the objectivity and decision making capability
of a manager.
SOCIAL MOTIVES
As implied by its name, this theory specifies needs that arise
in social settings.
"Core Social Motives describe fundamental, underlying

psychological processes that impel people’s thinking, feeling,
and behaving in situations involving other people"
Susan Fiske in a popular needs model has identified Five

Core Social Motives , easily remembered by the acronym
BUC(k)ET standing for (Belonging, Understanding, Controlling,
Enhancing Self, and Trusting) .
In this system, belonging is the root need , the

essential core social motive . The others are all said to
be in service to, facilitating, or making possible effective
functioning in social groups.
SOCIAL MOTIVES
1 . Belonging : People are motivated to affiliate and bond with

each other. In the absence of bonding and affiliating with other
people, one would not be able to acquire the feelings of
trust necessary to operate smoothly in society.
2.
4 . Understanding : to belong , people are motivated to create
an accurate-
enough shared social understanding. When people create accurate-
enough shared social understanding then they are not hounded
by feelings of doubt and shame in relation to social
relationships and society functioning.
3 . Controlling : People are motivated to feel competitive and

effective in
their dealings with the animate and inanimate environment. By
feeling competitive and effective in dealing with one's
environment one can generate positive feelings of
initiative in relation to social functioning and void any
guilt over ineffectiveness.
SOCIAL MOTIVES
4 . Enhancing Self : Hoping that other will see you as

socially worthy fits the core social motive of enhancing self.
If others see one as socially worthy, then this gives rise to
feelings of industry
5 . Trusting : Viewing the world as benevolent enables people

to participate
in many group activities without undue suspicion or vigilance.
One needs a trusting environment to be able to brood over
subtle questions like those of personal identity.
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
Attribution theory (Weiner, 1980, 1992) is probably the most
influential contemporary theory with implications for academic
motivation.
The theory explores how individuals “attribute“ causes to
events and behavior.
1. Locus - location of the cause—internal (dispositional) or

external (situational) to the person.
Closely related to feelings of self-esteem. If success or
failure is attributed to internal factors, success will lead to
pride and increased motivation, whereas failure will diminish
self-esteem
2. Stability- whether the cause is likely to stay the same in
the near future or can change.
Closely related to expectations about the future. If students
attribute their failure to stable factors such as the
difficulty of the subject, they will expect to fail in that
subject in the future
3. Controllability - whether the person can control the cause
Related to ambitions such as anger, pity, gratitude, or shame
If we feel responsible for our failures, we may feel guilt, If
we feel responsible for our successes, we may feel proud.
Failing at a task we cannot control can lead to shame or anger
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
According to attribution theory, the explanations that people

tend to make to explain success or failure can be analyzed in
terms of three sets of characteristics:
First, the cause of the success or failure may be internal or

external. That is, we may succeed or fail because of factors
that we believe have their origin within us or because of
factors that originate in our environment.
Second, the cause of the success or failure may be either

stable or unstable. If the we believe cause is stable, then
the outcome is likely to be the same if we perform the same
behavior on another occasion. If it is unstable, the outcome
is likely to be different on another occasion.
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
Third, the cause of the success or failure may be either

controllable or uncontrollable. A controllable factor is one
which we believe we ourselves can alter if we wish to do so. An
uncontrollable factor is one that we do not believe we can
easily alter.
Note that this factor is distinct from the previous two

categories. An internal factor can be controllable (we can
control our effort by trying harder) or uncontrollable (most
people cannot easily change their basic intellectual ability
or change from being an introvert to being an extrovert).
Likewise, an external factor can be controllable (a person
failing a difficult course could succeed by taking an easier
course) or uncontrollable (if calculus is difficult because
it is abstract, it will still be abstract no matter what we
do).
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
An important assumption of attribution theory is that people

will interpret their environment in such a way as to maintain a
positive self-image.
That is, they will attribute their successes or failures to

factors that will enable them to feel as good as possible about
themselves. In general, this means that when learners succeed at
an academic task, they are likely to want to attribute this
success to their own efforts or abilities; but when they fail,
they will want to attribute their failure to factors over which
they have no control, such as bad teaching or bad luck.
The basic principle of attribution theory as it applies to

motivation is that a person's own perceptions or attributions
for success or failure determine the amount of effort the person
will expend on that activity in the future.
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
There are four factors related to attribution theory that influence

motivation in education: ability, task difficulty, effort, and luck. In
terms of the characteristics discussed previously, these four factors
can be analyzed in the following way:
•Ability is a relatively internal and stable factor over which the learner
does not exercise much direct control.
•Task difficulty is an external and stable factor that is largely beyond

the learner's control.
•Effort is an internal and unstable factor over which the learner can
exercise a great deal of control.
•Luck is an external and unstable factor over which the learner

exercises very little control.
VROOM ’ S EXPECTANCY THEORY
2nd level outcom
First Level
outcome
E P P O 2nd level
outcome
Expectancy Instrumentality
First Level 2nd level

EFFORT PERFORMANCE outcome
2nd level outco
First Level
outcome 2nd level outco
2nd level outco

VROOM’s EXPECTANCY
THEORY
Expectancy - valence models state that a person's motivation to achieve
a goal depends on a combination of the value of that goal (its valence) and
the person's estimation of the likelihood of success
Vroom, hypothesizes that in order for a person to be motivated

- effort, performance and motivation must be linked.
He proposes three variables to account for this, which he calls

Valence , Expectancy and Instrumentality .
Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to

increased performance i.e. if I work harder then this will be
better. This is affected by such things as:
Having the right resources available (e.g. raw
materials, time)
Having the right skills to do the job
Having the necessary support to get the job done (e.g.

supervisor support, or correct information on the job)
Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform well that a
valued outcome will be received i.e. if I do a good job, there is
something in it for me. This is affected by such things as:
Clear understanding of the relationship between performance and

outcomes – e.g. the rules of the reward ‘game’
Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who get the
outcome.
Transparency of the process that decides who gets what outcome
Valence is the importance that the individual places upon the

expected outcome. For example, if I am mainly motivated by money,
I might not value offers of additional time off.

Organizational Behavior

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Organizational Behavior

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

ORGANIZATIONAL

INDIVIDUALS WHO ACHIEVE GOALS THROUGH OTHER PEOPLE

SOCIAL UNIT , COMPOSED OF TWO OR MORE PEOPLE , FUNCTIONING ON A RELATIVELY CONTIN

Henri Fayol, a frenchIndustrialist in the earlier twentieth century wrote about

Robert Katz, another eminent Management exponent identified essential

FIGUREHEAD : Symbolic Head, required to perform a number of routine duties of

LEADER: Responsible for the motivation & direction of employees

Serves: as a nerve center of internal & external information of the

Transmits organization related information to outsiders. Consider

AVERAGE SUCCESSFUL EFFECTIVE

Traditional Mgt. Communication

Human Resource Mgt Networking

Group Dynamics / Leadership

Social Behavioral & Attitude Change

Individual & Organl . Culture

Organizational Power ORGANIZATIONS

PLANDefining goals, establishing strategy &developing plans to coordinate activit

Models are abstraction of reality.

A simplified representation of some real world

OB Models are developed on the basis of management’s assumptions about people

Assumptions vary to a great extent resulting in different OB models

Two alternative behavioral approaches have been

In OB assumptions about people have been generally made on two extremes :

Ø McGregor’s Theory X & Theory Y of motivation

Autocratic Custodial Supportive Collegial

Authority is seen as the only means to get things done.

Employees are expected to follow orders.

High dependence on boss

The model is largely based on the Theory X assumptions.

Communication is mostly one way i.e. downward

Little interaction between managers & employees

ever, the fulfillment of maintenance factors fails to provide strong motivation.

The employees though happy do not give a high level of performance.

e employees do not have a say in deciding about their rewards or benefits.

This phenomena is more predominant in family-managed businesses.

This model is not suitable for matured employees.

e culture of the organization is to support the employees to achieve the results.

e focus is on participation & involvement of employees in the managerial decisio

h an organizational culture helps their employees to fulfill their higher order n

t is best suited in the conditions where employees are self-motivated.

It is based on team concept, each member develops a high understanding towards

ntrol is through self-discipline, requiring no external direction or control.

anizational climate is quite conducive to self-fulfillment & self-actualization.

MANAGING DIVERSITY CHANGING WORKFORCE DEMOGRAPHICS

ETHICAL BEHAVIOR OB CHALLENGES CHANGED EMPLOYEE EXPECTATIONS

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFORMATION GLOBALIZATION

INCREASED USE OF CORPORATE DOWNSIZING

E n co u ra g in g cu ltu ra l & g e n d e r d iv e rsity

ndustrial revolution totally transformed the then industrial environment.

Prior to this the life for an average employee was miserable.

•materialism •discipline •monotony •boredom •Job displacement

•Work interdependence •impersonality

Robert Owens , a young factory owner is also known as the ‘father’ of

thorne studies refer to a body of research involving three sets of studies.

he studies were conducted at the Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne works in

Containing learned beliefs , attitudes & Opinions about

It includes past selves & future selves

PT corresponds to hopes , fears , standards , goals & threats

There are SIX major subtypes –

ial i.e. an individual's sense of worth in social interactions.

Temperamental i.e. an individual's view of their prevailing emotional

l i.e. an individual's estimation of their moral worth; right or wrong activities